Usor:Tchougreeff/QUOMODO sive HOW TO/NH

LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION FOR THE MIDDLE FORMS OF SCHOOLS BY M. A. NORTH, M.A. ASSISTANT MASTER AT CLIFTON COLLEGE AND THE REV. A. E. HILLARD, D.D. HIGH MASTER OF ST. PAUL'S SCHOOL AUTHORS OF "GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION FOR SCHOOLS"

PREFACE

THE authors wish to explain one or two points with reference to the use of this book. The arrangement of subjects is meant to adapt it for school use. If a definite section of the book be assigned to each Form, and the division suggested in the Table of Contents be adopted for this purpose, each Form will deal with some new kind of clause in the Compound Sentence, the first with Final and Consecutive Clauses, the second with simple Indirect Statement, and so on. Pari passu those subjects are dealt with that concern the structure of the simple sentence (Participles, Case Constructions, &c.). In dealing with the cases the book does not treat each case as a whole, but gives the most necessary constructions (e.g. those of Time and Place) to the lowest Forms, and other constructions later on. The Vocabularies given for the separate exercises (p. 203) are meant to be an important part of the work. They are meant to be learned and kept up by revision. The authors have tried to bring in all words commonly required in Latin Prose Composition below the VIth Form, and any uncommon words required in an exercise ha \·e been given in notes, and not included. in the vocabulary to be learnt. These Vocabularies are placed together iv PREFACE. at the end of the book, so that they may not be before the eye of a boy when he does an exercise in school. The authors have tried to write the exercises so that no word or construction may be required which has not previously been given. This applies to the " connected pieces " (which begin from the lowest Form) as well as to the sentence-exercises. Each piece has been written expressly for the place in which it stands. Each exercise is marked either [A] or [B]. This is to divide the section assigned to a Form into two terms' work. Eithe.r the [A] exercises or the [B] exercises will make a complete course, and contain sufficient practice in constructions. But it is recommended that the Vocabularies of both [A] and [B] exercises should be learnt in any case, and of course the Hules and help given at the head of exercises are not repeated. After some hesitation the authors have added a "General Vocabulary", collecting all the words given in the separate Vocabularies. This is meant to assist short memories, but not to supply again constructions, genders, etc., which should have been learnt in the separate vocabularies. At the end of the book will also be found some further help in the way of Vocabulary: (1) A list of Military phrases grouped together (p. 244); (2) A list of the most useful Prepositional phrases (p. 236); (3) A list of the commonest Latin Synonyms (p. 239). These are to be learnt or referred to as occasion requires. The rules on the Order of Words in Latin are grouped at the end of the exercises (p. 195). This seemed better than scattering them throughout the book, or trying to bring each in where first required. But the more elementary of them are required in the earliest exercises. Before beginning this book a boy should be able to translate simple sentences (including easy questions and commands) into Latin, and should understand the rules of agreement, the use of the Passive Voice, the simplest uses of Pronouns and Prepositions, and the easiest Case constructions. (Ablative of Instrument, Agent, Cause ; Dative of Indirect Object and Possessor; Accusative after Factitive Verbs, etc.) But for the occasional revision of this elementary work the "Preliminary Exercises" (A to K) are prefixed. The thanks of the authors are due to many colleagues at Clifton for suggestions, and especially to the late Mr. E. N. P. Moor, to Mr. W. W. Asquith, and Mr. E. H. C. Smith, for kindness in reading through proofs. They wish to acknowledge also the great assistance given them in making the vocabularies by Mr. R. D. Budworth, of Magdalen College, and Mr. E. G. North, of Keble College, Oxford. It should be mentioned that the book has been used in a privately printed edition at Clifton College during the last two terms, and that the present edition has therefore benefited by the experience thus gained.

CLIFTON COLLEGE,

FOURTH EDITION

THE Vocabularies have been revised and improved, and the Rules for Oratio Obliqua (page 182) have been stated more clearly and fully. A few other small alterations liave been made where it seemed advisable.

1 SEQUENCE OF TENSES

Rule 1. The tenses in Latin are divided into two groups:

Indicative Subjunctive. A. Primary tenses

Perfect with 'have' Perfect

Present. Present.

Future

B. Historic tenses

Imperfect. Imperfect.

Perfect without 'have' (Aorist.):

Pluperfect. Pluperfect.

Where we have a dependent sentence with its verb in the Subjunctive, the tense of the Subjunctive is determined by the tense of the principal verb. Primary tenses follow Primary, Historic tenses follow Historic.1 The English will generally make it quite clear which of the two Primary tenses, or which of the two Historic tenses, is required in each case.

2 FINAL SENTENCES

Rule 2. Final Sentences (i.e. sentences expressing a purpose) have their verbs in the Subjunctive, introduced by ut when positive, by ne when negative.

EXAMPLES. Laborant pauperes ut divites fiant. Poor men work to become rich. Se receperunt ne consilia ab hostibus cognoscerentur. They retreated in order that their plans might not be discovered by the enemy.

3 CONSECUTIVE SENTENCES

Rule 3. Consecutive Sentences (i.e. sentences expressing a consequence) have their verbs in the Subjunctive introduced by ut. When the consequence is negative we have ut non, ut nemo, ut nullus, ut nunquam, etc., according to the sense. The sequence of tenses is the same as for Final clauses, with one exception; viz. the Perfect Subj. is often used after a historic tense. But only use it thus when (a) the result is "momentary," not continuous, and (b) the result actually did follow. e.g. Tautus erat ardor militum ut nemo motum terrae senserit. The soldiers were so engrossed that no one felt the earthquake.

EXAMPLES. Tantum est periculum ut omnes terreantur. So great is the danger that all are frightened. Tam celeriter se receperunt ut hostes eos capere non possent. They retreated so speedily that the enemy could not catch them.

4 INFINITIVES

Rule 4. The simple use of the Infinitive is as the subject or complement of a finite verb. It thus corresponds to the English verbal noun in -ing. e.g. laborare est orare =working is praying. Here 'laborare' is the subject of 'est,' and 'orare' is the complement, just as in the sentence 'laborare est difficile', 'difficile' is the complement. This last sentence we usually translate "It is difficult to work," but the Latin is "To work is difficult", and 'laborare' is a true subject. All verbs whose meaning is incomplete in itself require a complement, and this is usually in the Infinitive. We call it the Prolate Infinitive. e.g. volo abire I wish to go away conor laborare I try to work. possum vincere I can conquer. te sino proficisci I permit you to depart.

5 PARTICIPLES

Rule 5.

English sentences which require to be translated by participles in Latin are not usually in the Latin form at first. The English has to be turned; e.g. "The Greeks, having captured Troy, burnt it," cannot go straight into Latin, because Latin has no Perfect Participle Active.

(a) Wherever possible, make the participle agree with the subject or object. e.g. The Greeks having captured, Troy, burnt it. = Trojam captam Graeci incenderunt. Never write such a sentence as "Capta urbe, Graeci eam incenderunt." The Abl. Abs. is only to be used where the participle cannot agree with subject or object. The chiefs were taken and massacred. = Capti duces trucidantur.

(b) Wherever this is not possible, use the construction called Ablative Absolute; i.e. a Participle agreeing with a Noun in the Ablative, the whole phrase being an Abl. of Manner or Attendant Circumstances; e.g. in the sentence "Having taken the city, he marched on," the participle cannot agree with the subject because there is no Perfect Participle Active in Latin, nor can 'the city' be made the object of the verb. We therefore turn it: "The city having been captured, he marched on" = Capta urbe progressus est.

1. Do not invent a Passive Participle of Intransitive Verbs. Saying "Caesare pervento" is as absurd as saying "perventus est" for he arrived. Latin having no Perfect Part. Active, the only way to render "Caesar having arrived " is “Caesar quum pervenisset”.

2. On the other hand remember that Deponents have Perfect Participles with an Active sense, though their form is Passive ; e.g. locutus = having said, aggressus = having attacked, ratus = thinking, etc.

1. "Saying this, he fled" is a loose way of expressing "Having said this he fled"; and in Latin must be "Haec locutus fugit." The Present Participle always denotes an action going on at the same time as the action of the principle verb, whatever the tense of that verb may be ; e.g. Hoc ja moriens dixit = he said this while dying.

2. We must often use participles in Latin where they are not used in English.

(1) Where English uses two simple verbs joined by "and" or "but"; e.g. Numa died and Tullus became king = Mortuo Numa Tullus rex factus est; He took him and slew him - Captum eum interfecit.

(2) Where English uses phrases with prepositions or conjunctions; e.g. He was killed while hunting = interfectus et venans '; on the death of Numa=mortuo Numa ; after advancing a mile = mille passes progressus.

(3) Where English uses clauses denoting time, cause, etc.; e.g When Tullus king = regnante Tullo; As the soldiers would not follow, he remained = nolentibus sequi militibus, mansit.

6 TIME, PLACE, SPACE

Rule 6.

TIME. To be expressed without a preposition. Time during which Accusative. e.g. Triginta annos vixit He lived 30 years. Time when. Ablative. e.g. Tricesimo anno mortuus est. He died in 30th year. Time within which. Ablative. e.g . Multis annis Romam non venit. For many years he did not go to Rome.·

Sed N.B. - Undeviginti annos natus. Nineteen years old. (Acc.) Tribus ante (post) diebus. Three days before (after). (Abl. + prep.) Abhinc tres dies. Three days ago. (Nom. or Acc.?)

PLACE. To be expressed with a preposition, except in the case of towns, small islands, domus, rus.

Place whither. Accusative. e.g. In urbem, into the city. Athenas, to Athens. Place whence. Ablative. e.g. Ex Italia, out of Italy. Romā, from Rome. Place where. Ablative. Domo, from, home. e.g. In urbe, in the city. But to express place where use the Locative of town, small islands, domus, rus, humus; e.g. Romae, Athenis, Corinthi, Rhodi, ruri, humi. 1 The way by which one goes is expressed by the ablative without, preposition,

EXTENT OF SPACE. To be expressed by the Accusative without a preposition. e.g. Tria millia passuum progressus. Having advanced three miles. Tredecim pedes altus (latus, longus). Thirteen feet high (broad, long). Castra ab urbe aberant millia passuum ducenta. The camp was distant from the city 200 miles.

7 ABLATIVES OF COMPARISON, QUALITY, MEASURE OF DIFFERENCE: WORDS GOVERNING THE ABLATIVE.

Rule without number

(1) Quid mollius undā ! What is softer than water !

(2) Statūrā fuit humili. He was of low stature.

(3) Multo major est It is much greater. Multis partibus

The Abl. of Comparison is only to be used where two things are directly compared with one another by means of a Comparative Adjective. Otherwise use quam. The case of the noun following quam will be the same as that of the noun corresponding to it in the first part of the sentence. e.g. Facilius est mihi quam tibi. It is easier for me than for you. Balbi domus quam Caii altior est. Balbus' house is higher than Gaius'

Compare with these – Facilior est somnus labore. Sleep is easier than toil. Domus muro altior est. The house is higher than the wall. In these sentences we have direct comparison between the two things denoted by the nouns, and can therefore use the Ablative of Comparison.

8 INDIRECT STATEMENT

In the sentence "He said many things" the verb governs a noun as direct object. In the sentence "He said that I was unwise" a clause has taken the place of a direct object. When in this way a sentence becomes the object of a verb of "saying" or "thinking" we call it an "indirect statement." When the verb of 'saying' or 'thinking' is in the Passive the 'indirect statement' becomes the subject, e.g. nuntiatur hostem adesse = "that the enemy are near" is announced. So with impersonals like constat (it is agreed).

Rule 6.

When a statement is made dependent on a verb of "saying" or "thinking" the subject of the dependent clause is put in the Accusative, and the verb in the Infinitive. Verbs of "saying" and "thinking" include all such verbs as learn, perceive, know, hear, pretend, inform, hope, promise, threaten - of which hope, promise, threaten are always followed by the Future Infinitive. The subject of the Infinitive must always be expressed. "I deny" and "I say that . . not" are both translated in Latin by nego. Never use dico . . . non.

EXAMPLES.
Ille vir bonus est.	Putamus illum virum esse bonum.
He is a good man.	We think he is a good man.	We think now that he is a good man now
Legiones sĕquentur.	Dixerunt legiones secuturas esse.	Fut. simp. ->
The legions will follow.	They said the legions would follow.	They said in the past that legions would be going to tofollow after that
Copiae advenerunt.	Senserunt copias advenisse
Forces have arrived	They perceived that forces had arrived.	They perceived (yesterday) that forces had arrived (before yesterday).
Urbs non capietur	Negant urbem captum iri.
The city will not be taken	They say the city will not be taken.
Regrediar.	Spero me regressurum esse.
I shall return.	I hope to return.

9 SE, IPSE

Latin has no Reflexive Pronoun of the 1st and 2nd Persons, but ipse may be used as an adj. in agreement with the Pronoun (expressed or understood from the verb) ; e.g. tu ipse: - you yourself, mihi ipsi= to me myself, vos ipsos=you yourselves. In the 3rd Person se is the Reflexive Pronoun, both Masc. and Fcm„ Sing. and Plur. It has no Nom., and for 'he himself,' 'they themselves' we must use ipse, ipsi in agreement with the subject.

Rule 7.

In simple sentences "se" refers to the subject of its own clause. In Indirect Statement (Acc. with Inf.) use se with reference to the subject of the principal verb; i.e. the verb of 'saying.' 'Eum,' 'eos ' must not be used for the speaker. The adj. suus follows the same rule, and ejus must not be used for it. EXAMPLES. Ad eum discedite (vos) ipsi. Go to him yourselves. Se sua pecunia liberavit. He freed himself with his own money. Ariovistus respondit non sese iis sed eos sibi bellum intulisse. Ariovistus replied that he had not waged war on them (the Gauls), but they on him

10 TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE IN INDIRECT STATEMENT

Rule 8.

If the time referred to by the Infinitive is the same as the time of the verb of saying or thinking, the Present must be used. Otherwise use the Perfect or Future according to the tense of English. The tense of the Infinitive is always the tense that was used by the speaker in Direct Statement; e.g. "He said he was ill." The actual words were, "I am ill." Therefore use the Present Infinitive.

EXAMPLES.

(a) Caesar per exploratores cognovit et montem a suis teneri et Helvetios castra movisse. Caesar ascertained through scouts that the mountain was being held by his own men, and that the Helvetii had moved their camp.

11 PRICE AND VALUE.

Rule without number The 'Genitive of Value' (tanti, quanti, minori, minimi magni, pluris, flocci, etc. - which are properly Locatives is only to be used of ill­definite value with verbs of estimating or valuing, If the price is exactly stated the Ablative of Price (which is really an Abl. of Instrument) must be used. e.g. Multis talentis emptam domum nihili aestimat. A house bought for many talents he values at nothing.

12 PARTITIVE GENITIVE.

Britannorum fortissimi==Bravest { of/among } the Briton. Nimis virtutis Too much courage

Nimis	Too much
Parum	Too little
Satis	Enough
Aliqud	Some

Nos has two genitives - nostrum and nostri; vos has vestrum and vestri. Use the forms in -um for Partitive Genitive, the forms in -i for the Objective Genitive

13 PASSIVE OF INTRANSITIVE VERBS

Rule 9.

Intransitive Verbs cannot be used personally in the Passive, but they can be used impersonally: e.g. Pugnatum est diu = the battle lasted long. Concurritur undique = men run together from all sides. We can often express the same English by an intrans. or by a trans. verb: e.g. The Romans are helped = succurritur Romanis, or juvantur Romani. I was commanded = imperatum est mihi, or jussus sum. I was advised = suasum est mihi, or monitus sum.

N.B. - Remember that all "Dative Verbs" (i.e. all verbs that govern the Dative only) are Intransitive.

14 DIRECT COMMAND OR PETITION

This is inserted here for convenience of revision before doing Indirect Command.

Rule 10.

Second Person. If positive = Imperative. If negative = (a) Ne with Perfect Subj. (a) Imperat. of nolo with Inf. First and Third Persons. Present Subj., with ne if negative.

EXAMPLES.

Do not buy this horse = Hunc equum ne emeris.

Hunc equum noli emere. Let us (not) buy this horse = Hunc equum (ne) emamus. When a command is double, and the second part negative, use neu or neve instead of neque, before the second part. e.g. Maneamus in urbe neve discedamus. Let us remain in the city and, not depart. Ne iratus sis neve me reliqueris. Do not be angry or leave me.

15 INDIRECT COMMAND AND PETITION

In the sentences "He commands building of a bridge," "He demands the payment of the money,"'- the verbs 'commands ' and ‘demands' govern direct objects. But usually the place of this direct object is taken by a clause ; e.g. "He commands that the bridge be built," "He demands that the money be paid. " the clauses are " noun sentences," and are as truly the objects of the principal verbs as the nouns 'building ' and ' payment ' in the first sentences. These object sentences after verbs of asking and commanding are what we mean by "Indirect Commands."

Rule 11.

Indirect Commands are expressed in Latin by ut (when positive) ne (when negative) with the Subjunctive. The construction is exactly the same as that of Final Sentences. Exceptions. - Jubeo, veto, take Present Infinitive. Avoid jubeo . . non, for which impero ne or veto must be used. Neu (neve) is used for neque in Indirect as in Direct Commands and Final Sentences.

EXAMPLES.

(a) Persuadet Rauracis ut una cum Helvetiis proficiscantur. He persuades the Rauraci to set off with the Helvetii.

(b) Pontem, qui erat ad Genavam, jubet rescindi. He orders the bridge at Geneva to be broken down.

(c) Se gladio transfixit ne fame periret neve ab hostibus caperetur. He fell on his sword that he might not die of hunger or be taken by the enemy.

16 WORDS THAT MAY INTRODUCE STATEMENTS AND COMMANDS.

Rule 12. - The verbs moneo, persuadeo, suadeo, may introduce either Indirect statement or an Indirect command. In the former case, of course, they take Acc. with Inf. E.g., in the sentence “I will persuade him that this journey is dangerous”, the word "persuade" introduces a statement; but in "I will persuade him to abandon this journey" it introduces a command.

EXAMPLE.

Civitati persuasit ut de finibus suis exirent: perfacile esse, totius Galliae imperio potiri. He persuaded the State to migrate from their territories (Ind. command); saying that it was easy to become supreme in Gaul (Ind. statement). There is a similar ambiguity in the use of the English "tell," which may introduce either statement or command; e.g. "I told him the journey was dangerous," and "I told him to abandon the journey. "

17 DATIVE OF PURPOSE, OR PREDICATIVE DATIVE.

Exitio est avidum mare nautis. The greedy see is a destruction to sailors. Hosti ludibrio esse. To be a laughing-stock to the enemy. Auxilio Caesari mittitur. He is sent to the help of Caesar. These Datives are never qualified by an epithet, except the simplest of quantity; e.g. magno dedecori esse = to be a great disgrace. They are almost always accompanied by a Dativus Commodi, as nautis, hosti, Caesari in the above examples.

18 ABLATIVES OF ORIGIN, SEPARATION, ASSOCIATION.

1 (1) Jove natus =Born of Jupiter. (2) Libera nos metu =free us from fear. (3) Divitiis abundat =He has plenty of money

19 ABLATIVES OF RESPECT AND MANNER.

(1) Numero superiors = greater in number. (2) Summa diligentia naves armare = To fit ships with great care. The Ablative of Manner must have an epithet, except in a few words: jure (rightly), injuria (wrongly), fraude (treacherously), silentio (in silence), etc. If there is no epithet use cum: e.g. cum diligentia naves armare.

20 GERUNDS AND GERUNDIVES

Distinguish the Gerund and Gerundive. (1) The Gerund is a Verbal Noun of the Active Voice, corresponding to the English verbal nouns in -ing; not to be confused with the Present Participle in -ing which is really an Adjective. (2) The Gerundive is a Verbal Adjective of the Passive Voice.

Rule 13.

A. The oblique cases of the Gerund are used simply as the cases of a Noun. But the Accusative can only be used governed by a Preposition. e.g.

Acc. natus ad regendum = born to rule.

Gen. cupidus discendi = desirous of learning.

Dat. studuit discendo = he was devoted to learning.

Abl. (in) discendo sapientior fio = by learning I become wiser.

When the Gerund is in the Genitive case or the Ablative without a Preposition it may take a direct object.¹ e.g.

Gen. pacem petendi causa =for the sake of seeking peace.

Abl. scribendo fabulas =in writing stories.

B. But when the Verbal Noun governs a direct object² instead of the Gerund we generally use the Gerundive. This attracts the object into its own case, but agrees with the object in number and gender. This construction is known as "Gerundive Attraction." e.g.

Acc. ad pacem petendam =in order to ask for peace.

Gen. pacis petendae causa =for the sake of asking for peace.

Dat. legibus mutandis studuit =he was eager for changing the laws.

Abl. in scribendis fabulis =in writing stories.

¹Use the Gerund especially where by using the Gerundive we should get two genitives ending in -orum or -arum together.

²The Gerundive being Passive, none but transitive verbs (governing a direct object in the Acc.) can have a Gerundive. But utendus, potiundus, fruendus, can be used from utor, potior, fruor.

21 SUPINES

Besides the Gerund there is another Verbal Noun in Latin called the Supine. It only has two cases - an Acc. in -um, and an Abl. in -u.

Rule 14. - The Supine in um can only be used to express purpose after Verbs of motion. It may govern an object. The Future Infinitive Passive is made up of the Supine with iri, so that in the sentence ' Dixerunt nos interfectum iri, interfectum really governs nos, being a supine of purpose after iri. The Supine in -u can only be used after Adjectives,Also certain indeclinable nouns used as adjectives, e.g. fas (right), nefas (wrong). and corresponds to an Infinitive following an Adjective in English, e.g. "a question hard to answer."

EXAMPLES.

Abii dormitum = I went away to sleep.

Venerunt pacem petitum = They came to ask for peace.

Mirabile dictu = wonderful to relate.

22 DIRECT QUESTIONS

This rule is inserted here for convenience of revision before doing Indirect Questions.

Rule 15. Direct Questions may be asked without any special interrogative word, but they are frequently introduced (a) by Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs, such as quis, who? quando, When in questions is never quum but quando. Notice also that where is often used in English for whither, and in this sense must be translated by quo. when? ubi, where? (b) by Interrogative Particles. These Particles are in Single Questions -ne (enclitic), nonne (expecting answer "yes"), num (expecting answer "no"); in Double Questions utrum . . . an, -ne . . . an, utrum . . . annon.

EXAMPLES.

(a) Caesarne ad castra advenit? Has Gaesar reached the camp?

(b) Nonne Caesar ad castra advenit? 1 Has not Caesar reached the camp? Surely Caesar has reached the camp?

(c) Num Caesar ad castra advenit ? Caesar has not reached the camp, has he?Notice the form of the English. Has he?", "is he?" isn't he?"· etc., is only our way of showing what answer we expect, and is fully represented in Latin by the nonne or num at the beginning of the sentence.

(d) Utrum Caesar (or Caesarne) ad castra advenit annon ? Has Caesar reached the camp or not ? (N.B. - Do not append the -ne to an unemphatic word.)

23 INDIRECT QUESTIONS

In the sentence "He asked what I was doing" the clause 'what I was doing' is really the object of the verb 'asked.' In the sentence "What he is doing is uncertain" the clause 'what he is doing' is really the subject of 'is.’ When a direct question becomes thus the subject or object of a verb we call it an Indirect Question.

Rule 16. - A clause expressing an Indirect Question in Latin always has its verb in the Subjunctive. The principal verb may be any such words ask, know, doubt, consider, tell, etc.

Primary Tenses.	Rogat	quid	agam	He asks	what	I am doing
	Rogabit		acturus sim	He will ask		I am going to do
	Rogavit		egerim1	He has asked		I did
Historic Tenses.	Rogabat		agerem	He was asking		I was doing
	Rogavit		acturus essem	He asked		I was going to do
	Rogaverat		egissem	He had asked		I had done
	1The Perfect represents a completed action. Therefore use the Perf. Subj. when the governing verb is primary and the dependent verb relates to an action completed in past time, e.g. - Nescio quomodo mortuus sit = I do not know how he died.

In the above examples it will be noticed that we supply a Future Subjunctive by what is called the periphrastic conjugation, i.e. the Fut. Participle with sim in Primary, essem in Historic sequence. e.g. Nescio quando venturi sint I do not know when they will come. Nesciebam quando venturi essent I did not know when they would come. The interrogative particles are the same as in direct questions (whether single or double). But in indirect questions num does not necessarily expect the answer 'no', and necne must be used for annon. "If" meaning "whether" introducing a question must never be translated si, but in single questions by num, in double questions by utrum -ne . . . an. "When" in questions is quando, never quum.

1 The Imperative is a Primary tense:

agat

is doing Roga quid acturus sit Ask what he is going to do

egerit

he did

N.B. - Abstract nouns should generally be translated by concrete expressions; e.g.: What is the character (nature) of the island ?=Qualis est insula ? What is the size of the island ?= Quanta est insula ? What are the numbers of the enemy 1=Quot sunt hostes ? Their decision is== constituerunt. What is your reason for doing this ?

intension (object) in

Quo consilio id agis?

24 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES IN INDIRECT STATEMENT, ETC.

Rule 17. All clauses which are subordinate to an indirect statement or command or question have their verbs in the subjunctive.

EXAMPLE.

Ariovistus respondet se non in eas partes Galliae venire audere quas Caesar possideret. Ariovistus replied that he did not dare to come into those parts of Gaul which Caesar held.

25 IMPERSONAL VERBS.

1. In using oportet there is the same difficulty as in using debeo. In English we say, "I ought to have come," expressing the Perfect tense in the Infinitive. In Latin the tense must be expressed in the modal verb, not in the following Infinitive; e.g. Debui venire or· oportuit me venire. There is the same difference in the use of possum; e.g. Potui hoc fācere = I might have done this. 2. Remember that se refers to the subject of the sentence. An impersonal verb has no subject, and therefore cannot be followed directly by se; e.g. He was ashamed = eum puduit. If, however, the impersonal is used in an indirect statement se must be used for the third person, because it refers to the subject of the verb of saying; e.g. Dixit se pudere=He said he was ashamed. See Rule 7, p. 40.

26 RELATIVE WITH THE SUBJUNCTIVE

Rule 18. A relative with the subjunctive may express many adverbial meanings, especially a Purpose or a Consequence. This is the regular way of expressing a Purpose

(1) When the subject of the subordinate sentence is the same as the subject or object of the Principal Verb.

(2) When the subordinate clause contains a comparative, in which case quo (the abl. of the relative) is regularly used for ut.We thus have four ways of expressing purpose in Latin, viz. as in the following sentences: (1) Legatos miserunt ut pacem peterent (Rule 2). (2) Legatos miserunt qui pacem peterent. (3) Legatos miserunt ad pacem petendam. Legatos miserunt pacis petendae causa (Rule 13). (4) Legatos miserunt pacem petitum (Rule 14). Occasionally also purpose is expressed by the Future Participle; e.g. Legatos miserunt pacem petituros. A Consequence is most often expressed in this way with the phrases is qui, dignus qui, and sunt qui.

EXAMPLES.

Final. Duas legiones reliquit quae auxilio duci possent. He left two legions to be brought up as reinforcements. Nervii murum aedificaverunt quo facilius equitatum impedirent. The Nervii built a wall the more easily to hinder the cavalry.

Consecutive. Non is sum qui mortis periculo terrear. I am not the man to be frightened by the fear of death. Dignus erat qui rex fieret. He deserved to be made king. Sunt qui non habeant. There are some who have not (or some men have not).

27 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE EXPRESSING OBLIGATION (Translation of "ought", "must.")

Rule 19. - The Nominative of both Gerundive and Gerund is used to express obligation. The Gerundive is used with Transitive Verbs, the Gerund with Intransitive Verbs. e.g. Gerundive - leges mutandae sunt = the laws must be changed. Gerund - succurrendum est amicis = we must help our friends. When these statements become indirect the Acc. is used in the same sense of obligation. e.g. Gerundive - dixit leges mutandas esse. Gerund - dixit succurrendum esse amicis.

Rule 20.-In this construction the person on whom the obligation lies is expressed by the Dative. This is often called Dative of the Agent. But for the sake of clearness, where there is another Dative, the Agent is expressed by ab with the Abl. e.g. Leges nobis mutandae sunt = we must change the laws. Legibus a nobis parendum est = we must obey the laws.

N.B.

(1) The English words "ought," "must," etc., are often to be translated into Latin by this construction. Remember that the Gerundive is a Passive Adjective, and before translating we must turn the English in thought into a Passive form. e.g. We must change the laws = The laws are to-be-changed by us = Leges nobis mutandae sunt.

(2) Observe also that the Gerundive can be used with any tense of sum according to the sense, and the English translations will be very various, because our words "must " and "ought" have only one tense. e.g. Leges nobis mutandae erunt = We shall have to change the laws. (literally, the laws will be to-be-changed by us.) Leges nobis mutandae erant = We ought to have changed the laws. The Gerund in like manner can be used with any tense. e.g. Legibus a nobis parendum fuit = We had to obey the laws.

28 VERBS OF FEARING

Rule 21. Verbs of Fearing have three constructions: (a) Prolate Infinitive. (b) ne with Subjunctive. (c) ne non with Subjunctive.

EXAMPLES.

(a) Timeo redire. I am afraid to return. (b) Timeo ne redeat. I am afraid that he will return (of his retuning). (c) Timebam ne non rediret.Ut may sometimes take the place of ne non (especially after vereor). I was afraid he would not return. Timeo ne non redierit. I am afraid he has not returned. Timebam ne non rediisset. I was afraid he had not returned.

N.B. (b) and (c) are Final Sentences, Latin preferring to express the object or desire of the person fearing, while Eng. gives the exact opposite; viz„ the thing you wish to avoid. Of course, (a) is only possible when the subject of the two verbs is the same.

1 In clauses after verbs of fearing there is no need to express the English Future (as in Indirect questions) by the Periphrastic Conjugation (Rule 16). The Present (in Primary sequence) and Imperfect (in Historic sequence) are used for it without causing any ambiguity.

29 CAUSAL CLAUSES

A Causal Clause is one which gives a reason for the statement of the principal cause. Rule 22.- Causal Clauses have their verb (a) in the Indicative when the actual cause of a fact is given, (b) in the Subjunctive when only a suggested reason is given. But quum (since) always takes Subj. N.B.- Of course the Indicative of a Causal clause becomes Subjunctive if it forms part of an Indirect Statement. See Rule 17.

EXAMPLES.

(a) Tacent quia periculum metuunt. They are silent because they fear danger. (b) Socrates accusatus est quod juventutem corrumperet. Socrates was accused on the ground that he corrupted the youth. (It is not asserted by the writer that Socrates did corrupt the youth.)

30 QUIN

Rule 23. - Quin with Subjunctive is used after Verbs of (a) doubting and denyingThe use of this construction with negare is not earlier than Livy. (b) hindering and preventingProhibeo, veto, prefer Infinitive. when these verbs are preceded by a negative. In these uses quin = qui-ne, by which not, qui being an old Ablative of the Relative.

EXAMPLES.

(a) Non {dubitare/negare 1}debemus quin fuerint ante Homerum poetae. We ought not to {doubt/deny} that there were poets before Homer. (b) Nihil me deterrebit quin proficiscar. Nothing will prevent my setting out. Haud multum abfuit quin Ismenias interficeretur. Ismenias was very near being killed. (There was not much to prevent Ismenias being killed.) Under (1) (b) come the important phrases- non possum facere quin= I cannot help non potest fieri quin .= It is impossible that ….. not. haud multum abfuit quin (ego) = I was very near· . . . · I was not far from . . (2) In certain phrases where quin = qui-ne, who not, qui being Nominative. e.g. Nemo est quin . . . nulla navis est quin . . . etc. Nullum est aedificium quin collapsum sit. There is no building that has not fallen. N.B. - In all its uses quin is preceded by a negative, or virtual negative (e.g. vix, aegre, or a question expecting the answer "no," like "Can anyone prevent . . . ").

31 QUOMINUS

Rule 24.- Quominus with Subjunctive is used after verbs of hindering and preventing, whether they are positive or negative.1 Exception. - Prohibeo, veto, prefer an Infinitive.

EXAMPLES.

Nihil deterret sapientem quominus reipublicae consulat. Nothing prevents a philosophe from serving the state. Per Africanum stetit quominus dimicaretur. It was due to Africanus that there was no battle.

32 TEMPORAL CLAUSES

Rule 25. Conjunctions used in a purely temporal sense are followed by the indicative. But the verb is put in the Subjunctive (a) when it is in Oratio Obliqua, (b) when some other idea than that of time (e.g. purpose) is introduced. N.B. - Quum is an exception. Also dum in the sense of while. For these see Rules 26, 27.

EXAMPLES.

(a) Postquam The English Pluperfect should be rendered by Latin Perfect after postquam, and simulac. But with postquam the Plup. may be used if the exact interval of time is mentioned. Tertio post anno quam veneram = three years after I had come. omnes Belgarum copias ad se venire vidit, ad exercitum properavit. After he saw that all the forces of the Belgians were coming·to him he hastened to join the army. (b) Caesar priusquam se hostes ex terrore reciperent in fines Suessionum exercitum duxit. Before the enemy could recover, implying that Caesar wished to prevent their recovering. from their panic, Caesar led his army into the territories of the Suessiones. When the temporal clause refers to Future time the verb will be in the Future (or Fut. Perf.) in Latin, though in English the Present is preferred. (c) Nos ante abibimus quam tu redieris (Fut. Perf.). We shall go away before you return.

33 QUUM

Rule 26. Quum ( = when) in Primary tenses takes Indicative; in Historic takes Subjunctive. (= since/although1) always Subjunctive.

EXAMPLES.

(a) Quum potero reddam. I will pay it back when I can.

(b) Quae quum cognoscerent, se recipere in animo habebant. When/since/although they learnt this, they intended to retreat.

Exceptions. - Quum ( = when) may take Historic tenses of the Indicative in certain cases

(1) When the clauses are inverted, i.e. when the quum clause really contains the principal statement. e.g. Jam ver appetebat quum Hannibal ex hibernis movit. Spring was already approaching when Hannibal moved from his winter quarters.

N.B. - If not inverted, this would be "Hannibal moved from his quarters when spring was approaching" (quum ver appeteret).

(2) When quum is frequentative, i. e. is equal to quoties, as often as, whenever. [In this sense use Perfect and Pluperfect.] e.g. Quum consul abfuerat, seditiosi erant. They were mutinous whenever the consul was absent.

(3) When quum is equal to quamdiu, as long as, or ex quo tempore, since. e.g. Quum consul aberat tum seditiosi erant. They were mutinous as long as the consul was away.

34 DUM

Rule 27. Dum (= while) But when 'while' can be turned by 'as long as, dum may take any tense of the Indicative, like quamdiu, etc. See Rule 25. e.g. Haec feci dum licuit =I did this while (as long as) I was allowed. The difference is that in this case the time of the action of the principal verb and the time of the action of the 'dum ' verb are contemporaneous, i.e. begin and end together.) may take Present Indicative, even of Past Time and in Oratio Obliqua. (= provided that, if only = dummodo) always Subjunctive. (= until) follows ordinary rule of Temporal Conjunctions (Rule 25). Dum arma conquiruntur circiter hominum millia sex ad Rhenum contenderunt. While the arms were being searched for about 6000 made off for the Rhine. Oderint dum metuant. Let them hate provided that they fear. Dum reliquae naves convenirent ad horam nonam exspectavit. To allow the rest of the ships to assemble, he waited till the ninth hour. Mansit dum judices rejecti sunt. He waited till the judges were rejected.

35 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES

Rule 28. A. Open Conditions, i.e. those in which we assume the condition without implying anything as to its fulfilment. INDICATIVE in both clauses. Any tense possible according to the sense. Si hoc facis, peccas. If you do this you do wrong. Si hoc {facies /feceris} peccabis. If you do this (Fut.) you will do wrong. Si hoc fecisti peccavisti. If you did this you did wrong. B. Conditions in which it is implied that the fulfilment of the condition is improbable but possible. PRESENT (or PERFECT) SUBJUNCTIVE in both clauses. Si hoc facias, pecces. If you {did/were to do} this, you would, do wrong. C. Impossible Conditions, i.e. those in which it is implied that the fulfilment of the condition is impossible.

(1) Relating to Present time, or to continuous action in Past time. IMPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in both clauses. Si hoc faceres, peccares. If you were doing this, you would be doing wrong. (implying “but you are not doing it.") or; If you had been doing this you would have been doing wrong.

(2) Relating to Past time. PLUPERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE in both clauses. Si hoc fecisses, peccavisses. If you had done this, you would have done wrong. (implying "But you did not do it.")

The tense and mood are generally the same in the protasis (i.e. the if clause) and the apodosis (i.e. the conclusion). But in C the condition may obviously relate to past time and so be Pluperfect, while the conclusion relates to present time and is therefore Imperfect.Moreover, in Impossible Conditions, if the verb of the apodosis is possum, debeo, oportet, or a gerundive (or any verb expressing obligation or possibility), it is regularly put in the Indicative. e.g. Si patriam perdidisset interficiendus erat. If he had betrayed his country he should have been put to death. E.g. Si hoc fecisses, nunc felix esses. If you had done this you would now be happy. The apodosis need not always be a statement, but may be a command or wish, e.g. Ne veneris nisi jussero. Moriar si me facti poenitet. The English Present is often used for what is really a Future action. In Latin the Future or Fut. Perf. must always be used in these cases, e.g. Si id feceris (or facies) peccabis = 'If you do this you will do wrong.'

36 FURTHER EXAMPLES OF CONDITIONALS

A. Parvi sunt foris arma nisi est consilium domi. Arms are worth little abroad unless there is wisdom at home. Si te hic offendero, moriere. If I meet you here, you shall die. Non si tibi ante profuit, semper proderit. If it helped you before it will not help you always.

B. Nonne sapiens, si fame conficiatur, abstulerit cibum alteri? Would not a wise man, if he were being starved, take food from another?

C. Non pacem peterem nisi utilem crederem. I should not be asking for peace if I did not think it advantageous. Si Camillus tale fecisset, non nobis exemplo esset. Had Camillus done such a thing, he would not be an example to us.

37 PRONOUNS AND ADVERBS. TRANSLATION OF 'ANY'

Quisquam (adj. ullus) to be used when 'any' is exclusive; i.e. with negatives and sentences virtually negative. Sentences are virtually negative

(1) when they contain vix, aegre, sine,

(2) when they are questions expecting the answer 'no,'

(3) when they are comparative, "he was taller than any of his friends".

Quivis, Quilibet to be used when 'any' is inclusive; i.e. when it me anybody like you, or everybody. Quis (adj. qui) only used after si, nisi, num, ne (and after quo, quanto, with comparatives). Aliquis only when someone may be substituted for anyone in the English without altering the sense.

TRANSLATION OF ‘Some' Aliquis and Quispiam are the ordinary words. aliquis should be used for 'somebody,' when it means 'a person of consequence.' Quidam= a certain man, almost the Eng. Indefinite Article. As a rule it follows its noun. Nescio quis = some one or other, no definite person indicated. Alii . . . alii some . . . others. Nonnulli = some, of number, opposed to none, and of ten implying a considerable number. Aliquot = some, of number.

EXAMPLES.

Quivis de virtute loquitur, vix quisquam virtutem praestat. Everyone talks about virtue, scarcely anyone practices it. Si quid cognovisti, loquere. If you have learnt anything, speak. Forsitan dicat aliquis . . . Perhaps some one may say . . . Hic nescio quis loquitur. There is someone or other talking here.

38 OTHER PRONOUNS.

Quisquis, whoever (adj. quicunque). Ecquis? Interrog. and Indef. combined, 'anyone at all'? Quisnam?= the Interrog. quis. Quisque, each man. Its commonest uses are with superlatives and ordinals; e.g. optimus quisque (all the best men), decimus quisque (every tenth man, or one in ten), and in combination with suus or ipse; e.g. suam quisque salutem petit (each man seeks his own safety).

39 ADVERBS.

Unquam (ever) and usquam (anywhere) can only be used according to the rule of quisquam; i.e. with negatives and virtual negatives. Quo (anywhither), quando (at any time), in the same way correspond to quis. e.g. Si quando peccaveris, ne celaveris unquam. If ever you sin, never conceal it. Contrast - Ne semper celaveris = Do not be {ever/always} concealing it. Alicubi (somewhere), aliquando (some time, once upon a time), aliquantum (some quantity), aliquamdiu (for some time), corrospond to aliquis. The syllable ali always corresponds to the Eng. some, and these words must not be used for the Eng. any, except when it stands for some. Nonnunquam (sometimes) corresponds to nonnulli.

40 CONCESSIVE CLAUSES

Rule 29. Concessive Clauses have their verb (a) in the Indicative when what is conceded is allowed to be a fact; (b) in the Subjunctive if it is only conceded as a hypothesis for argument's sake. Quamvis, licet, quum, ut are only to be used with SUBJUNCTIVE. Quanquam is only to be used with INDICATIVE. Etsi, etiamsi, tametsi may be used with either according to meaning.

EXAMPLES.

(a) Romani quanquam fessi erant procedunt. The Romans advanced in spite of being tired. Cur nolint, etiamsi tacent, satis dicunt. Though they are silent they show clearly why they are unwilling. (b) Quod turpe est, id, quamvis occultetur, tamen honestum fieri nullo modo potest. What is base cannot be made honourable, however much it be disguised. Rectum est, etiamsi nobis indigna audiamus, iracundiam repellere. It is right to restrain our passions, even though we should hear things that we resent (things unworthy of us).

41 COMPARATIVE CLAUSES

Rule 30. When the Comparative Clause is meant to state an actual fact its verb is in the Indicative; but when it is a purely imaginary comparison the verb is in the Subjunctive. In the first case the commonest words of comparison used are: sicut (just as), perinde ac (exactly as), aeque ac (as much as), aliter ac (otherwise than), alius ac (different from), idem ac (the same as). In the second case the commonest are: velut, quasi, tanquam (si).

EXAMPLES.

Poenas dedit sicut meritus est. He was punished as he deserved. Absentis Ariovisti crudelitatem quasi coram adesset horrebant. They dreaded the cruelty of Ariovistus in his absence just as if he had been present. Virtus eadem in homine ac deo est. Virtue is the same in man as in God

42 ORATIO OBLIQUA

Rule 31. In Latin it is much commoner than in English to report a long speech not in the exact words of the speaker, but in the Indirect form, or Oratio Obliqua. Each clause in this will be either an Indirect Statement, or an Indirect Command, or an Indirect Question, or a clause dependent on one of these ; and the mood and tense must be determined by the rules already given.For Indirect Statement, see pp. 38, 42; for Indirect Command, p. 62; for Indirect Question, p. 88; for clauses dependent on these, p. 96 ; and for the Sequence of Tenses, p. 2. But observe:

(1) The Oratio Obliqua being continuous, the verb of "saying " which introduces it is not to be repeated before each clause, and a verb of command or questioning may be understood from one of saying and vice versa.

(2) Where a command comes in the middle of Oratio Obliqua the ut is not expressed, though if it is a prohibition the ne must be expressed.

(3) Questions in Oratio Obliqua may be expressed by the Infinitive when they are asked for rhetorical purposes, and not to obtain an answer, and are practically equivalent to negative statements. Questions which in the direct form are in the 1st or 3rd Person are generally rhetorical. e.g. the following are rhetorica1 questions: "Am I a coward that I should fly without striking a blow?" "Is freedom a possession to be lightly esteemed?" (Num libertatem parvi aestimandam esse?)

(4) All pronouns representing the 1st and 2nd Persons must be changed into the 3rd Person. e.g. ego, meus, nos, noster, become se, suus.Se and suus represent either the speaker alone or the speaker and the people addressed, where the speaker identifies himself with them.

tu, tuus, vos, vester, become ille, illius, is, ejus, etc.

hic and iste become ille and is.

Adverbs require similar changes:

hodie becomes illo die.

hic becomes ibi.

nunc becomes jam or tunc.

The following example will illustrate these points: "The general asked his men why they hesitated, and urged them to advance at once. He reminded them that everything depended on their bravery, and declared that if they shirked the battle they would disgrace him and their country. "Was it credible, he demanded, that he was addressing the same men who had so often defeated the enemy" "Imperator suos interrogavit cur haesitarunt statim progrederentur, omnia enim in illorum virtute esse posita; quodsi pugnam detrectassent illos dedecori fore et sibi et patriae. Num credibile esse se eosdem adloqui qui hostem toties vicissent ?" Notice here that the English verbs "urged, "reminded, "declared," "demanded, are all understood in Latin from the one introductory word "interrogavit "; that the command "progrederentur " is expressed without the ut; and that the Infinitive "esse" represents a rhetorical question. Notice also that the Pluperfect "detrectassent" stands for the Future Perfect of the Direct Speech.N.B. Here, as the form of the conditional si vellet shows, the infinitive passe implies negation, and the question is rhetorical.

1

O. R. O. O. Ariovistus me consule cupidissime populi Romani amicitiam appetitit: cur hunc tam temere quisquam ab officio discessurum judicat? Mihi quidem persuadetur, cognitis meis postulatis, eum neque meam neque populi Romani gratiam repudiaturum. Quod si furore atque amentia impulsus bellum intulerit, quid tandem veremini? aut cur de nostra virtute aut de mea diligentia desperatis? Dixit---Ariovistum se consule cupidissime populi Romani amicitiam appetisae: cur illum tam temere quisquam ab officio discessurum judicaret? Sibi quidem persuaderi, cognitis suis postulatis, eum neque suam neque populi Romani gratiam repudiaturum. Quod si furore atque amentia impulsus bellum intulisset, quid tandem vererentur? aut cur de sua virtute aut de ipsius diligentia desperarent? During my consulship Ariovistus most earnestly coveted the friendship of the Roman people. Why does anyone suppose that he will so hastily cast off his allegiance? For my part I am convinced that when he is acquainted with my demands he will not slight either my favour or that of the Roman people. But if under the impulse of rage and madness he does wage war upon us, why, I ask, are you afraid? or why do you doubt either our courage or my diligence ?

O. R. O. O. Si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faciet, in eam partem ibunt atqne ibi erunt Helvetii ubi eos constituisti; sin bello persequi perseverabis, reminiscere veteris incommodi populi Romani. Quod improviso unum pagum adortus es cum ii, qui fiumen tran.sierant suis auxiliumferre non possent, ne ob hanc rem tuae magnopere virtuti tribueris neve nos despexeris. Is ita cum Caesare egit: si pacem populus Romanus cum Helvetiis faceret, in eam partem ituros atque ibi ju furos Hefoctios, ubi eos Caesar constituisset; sin bello persequi perseveraret, reminisceretur·veteris incommodi populi Romani. Quod improviso unum pagum adortus esset cum ii, qui flumen transiissent, suis auxilium ferre non possent, ne ob eam rem suae magnopere virtuti tribueret, neve se ipsos despiceret. If the people of Rome make peace with the Helvetii, the Helvetii will go to that part of the country which you have assigned to them, and will remain there. But should you persist in harrying them with war -remember the former disaster which befell the Roman people. As to the fact of your having fallen unexpectedly upon a single canton, when those who had crossed the river could not bring help to their friends, do not on this account think too highly of your own valour, or treat us with scorn.

THE ORDER OF WORDS

IN THE SIMPLE SENTENCE.

1. Normal Order. A word receives most emphasis when placed at the beginning or end of a sentence, therefore in an ordinary Latin sentence place the Subject first and the Predicate last. N.B. - By the Predicate we do not mean necessarily the Verb. When the verb esse is used with Adjectives or Participles it need not take the last place.

2. The middle of a single sentence must be arranged on this principle: Expressions which naturally qualify the subject (generally adjectives or adjectival expressions) must be grouped near the subject, expressions which qualify the predicate (objects, adverbial and prepositional expressions) must be grouped before the verb.

3. Before the subject, however, will naturally come any words which connect with the preceding sentence; e.g. relatives, expressions of time, &c. It is exceedingly important to remember that Latin sentences do not usually follow one another without some expressed connection. In English we constantly leave the connection to be understood from the general sense. Thus a Latin simple sentence, in which there is no need to emphasise particular words, will usually be arranged in this order: (1) Connecting words. (2) Subject. (3) Attributes of Subject. (4) Objects and attributes of the Objects. (5) Adverbial expressions qualifying Predicate. (6) Predicate. Postero die mane | Servilius consul cum omnibus copiis | flumen quam celerrime transit. Early next day the consul Servilius with all his forces crosses the river as speedily as possible. Quibus rebus auditis | dux hostium, vir magna belli peritia | suos ex castello se recipere jubet. When he heard this news the leader of the enemy, who had gained experience in many wars, ordered his men to leave the fort.

4. Special Emphasis. To emphasise any special word it must be placed out of its usual position. The Predicate is most emphasised by being placed first, the Subject by being placed last or nearly last. Any other word will be emphasised by taking either of these positions. An attribute separated from its noun, or an adverb separated from its verb, is thereby emphasised. Habet senectus magnam auctoritatem. Old age certainly has great influence. Hac claue periit libertas. It was liberty that perished in this disaster.

1 The above sentences are divided by lines into (1) Connecting words, (2) those parts which naturally go with the subject, (3) those that go with the predicate. The connection in thought between two sentences is most frequently one of time or place e.g. Postero die in the first sentence. Recte igitur deos esse diximus. We were right in saying that there are gods. Exempla proponamus illi optima. Let the examples we set before him be the best. In English also we can sometimes emphasise by order; e.g. "A friend I am unwilling to accuse." But we more often put the emphatic words in a clause by themselves, as in the last three examples given above. Compare "It is not often that a rich man envies the poor" with the Latin "Haud saepe invidet pauperibus dives, where the necessary emphasis on "not often " is given by position.

5. Attributes, &c. An adjective more often follows than precedes its noun, and a slight emphasis is often given by placing it first. e.g. Vir bonus ac sapiens. A good and wise man. Bonum ac sapientem virum fingimus, It is the good and wise man that we are describing. Nouns in apposition generally follow the noun to which they are attached. If they precede it they are thereby emphasised. e.g. Lemnos insula = the island of Lemnos. Insula Lemnos = the island Lenmos (as opposed to the town). Servilius consul =the consul Servilius. Consul Servilius = Servilius when consul, or as consul. Where there is both an attribute and some defining phrase (a case or a prepositional phrase) put the latter between the attribute and the noun. e.g. Multa tua erga me beneficia. Your many kindnesses to me. Filius patri similis. A son like his father,

THE COMPOUND SENTENCE.

6. The Compound Sentence consists of a Principal Clause and Subordinate Clauses. The Subordinate Clauses all stand in some relation to the principal verb or its subject, being equivalent to nouns, adjectives, or adverbs; and they will for the most part fall into the places that these would have occupied if the sentence had been simple. Compare, for instance, the following sentences:

SIMPLE COMPOUND.

Quibus rebus auditis, Iberorum dux, vir magna belli peritia, collectis omnihus copiis, impediendi causa Romanos, pontem rescindit. Hearing this, the Iberian leader, a man of great experience in warfare, collected all his forces, and broke down the bridge in order to delay the Romans. Quae quum audiisset, lberorum dux, qui bellorum peritissimus erat quum omnes copias collegisset, ne Romani celerius advenirent, pontem rescindi jubet. When the Iberian leader, who had had great experience in warfare, heard this, he collected all his forces, and ordered the bridge to be broken down, so as to delay the Romans' advance.

The main principle therefore of the Compound Sentence is that the subordinate parts of the sentence are enclosed between the subject, which must stand near the beginning, and the principal verb, which will most frequently come at the end. The order of clauses will therefore naturally be as follows: (1) Any clause which connects with the previous sentence. (2) The subject followed by any attributive clauses which belong to it. (3) Any clauses which naturally belong to the Predicate (a) Adverbial clauses of time, &c. ; (b) Object clauses, such as Acc. and Inf., Indirect Questions or Commands. (4) The Predicate. Quod cum vidisset dux, quia quid hostis paret nescit, paullum moratur. Seeing this, the general delayed a little time, because he did not know what the enemy was preparing to do. Reliquis diebus Cacsar, ne qui inermibus militibus impetus fieri posset, omnem eam materiam, quae erat caesa, conversam ad hostem conlocabat. Daring the remaining days Caesar piled up facing the enemy all the timber that had been cut, so that no attack might be made on his men when unarmed. Tamen Senones, quae est civitas imprimis firma et magnae inter Gallos auctoritatis, Cavarinum, quem Caesar apud eos regem constituerat, interficere publico consilio conati, cum ille praesensisset ac profugisset, usque ad fines insecuti regno domoque expulerunt. Nevertheless the Senones, icho are the strongest and most influential tribe among the Gauls, tried to kill Cuvarinus, whom Caesar had made king among them, and when he found out the plot and fled, pursued him as far as their boundaries, and d rove him from his kingdom and home. But these principles will be modified by many considerations of (a) Emphasis, (b) Logical Arrangement, (c) Sound. No system of rules can take the place of observation in reading, But the following suggestions may be added. (a) Emphasis. As in the Simple Sentence, the beginning and end are emphatic positions, and a subordinate clause may be emphasised by being placed in one of these positions. It often happens that the verb which is grammatically principal verb is not the important part of the predicate, and in that case it will not come last. This is especially frequent with the verb of "saying" that introduces Oratio Obliqua, which is not as a rule kept to the end of the sentence. e.g. Eo cum de improviso celeriusque onmi opinione venisset, Remi, qui proximi Galliae ex Belgis sunt, ad eum legatos miserunt qui dicerent se suaque omnia in fidem atque in potestatem populi Romani permittere. But Caesar arriving there suddenly and sooner than anyone had expected, the Remi, who are the nearest to Gaul of the Belgian tribes, sent him ambassadors to say that they surrendered themselves and all they possessed to the sway and authority of the Roman people. In this sentence miserunt is the principal verb, and dicerent the main verb of the subordinate clause, but neither contains the main statement of the sentence, and therefore neither stands last. The object of the sentence is to give the message of the Remi "se . . . permittere." It is a common mistake of beginners to think they must write "legatos qui se . . . permittere dicerent miserunt." For the same reason a Purpose Clause or Causal Clause will stand last, if to state the Purpose or Cause is the real object of the sentence; i.e. if it is more emphatic than the statement of the Principal Verb. Compare the following: He said it to frighten me. Haec dixit ut me terreret. He threatened me with torture to frighten me. Ut me terreret cruciatum mihi minabatur. In the first sentence to state the purpose is the object of the sentence. In the second the principal verb contains the main idea. (b) Logical arrangement. It is generally essential to clearness that the statement of circumstances (e.g. time, place, etc.) should precede the main statement, and statement of cause precede the statement of the effect. For this reason a Consecutive sentence will almost always come after the verb it depends on, though grammatically subordinate. It also tends to clearness to observe the following: (1) When the principal verb and subordinate verb have the same subject, do not put the subject, as we do in English, inside the subordinate clause ; e.g. for "When Caesar heard this, he returned," say, " Caesar, quum haec audiisset, rediit." (2) In translating complicated English sentences into Latin avoid the frequent change of subject which we allow in English. The change of Active for Passive will often obviate difficulty. (c) Sound. If we followed universally the rule of enclosing subordinate clauses, we should find three or four verbs sometimes together at the end of the sentence. Avoid this by altering the arrangement of words in one or more of the clauses. Avoid generally placing together similar terminations (especially -orum, -arum). Avoid also a sentence consisting entirely of words of the same length; e.g. such a combination as “Erat quonqam pastor quidam Gygis regis." The sound often helps the sense ; e.g. where the writer wishes to describe a series of events rapidly following one another he may use a series of short sentences, even without conjunctions. e.g. Concilium dimittit, Liscum retinet. Quaerit ex solo ea quae in conventu dixerat. Dicit liberius atque audacius, Eadem secreto ab aliis quaerit; reperit esse vera. On dismissing the council he detained Liscus and enquired of him privately about those matters that he had intentioned at the meeting. Liscus spoke then more openly and boldly, and by private enquiries from others Caesar found that his statements were true,

7. Pronouns. (a) The Relative always comes first in its clause where possible. e.g. These towns, one of which has been burnt. Haec oppida, quorum unum incensum est (never unum quorum). Catiline is here, by whose slaves he was killed. Adest Catiljna cujus ab servis interfectus est (not ab cujus servis). So quamobrem, qua de causa, quas inter urbes, &c. But if the relative is used substantivally, the preposition will·precede it as a rule - inter quos, ex quibus, &c. (b) Many adjectives (especially superlatives) and words in apposition are attracted into the Relative clause in Latin contrary to English usage. e.g. The beautiful city of Corinth, which was destroyed by L. Muminius. Corinthus quae urbs pulcherrima ab L. Mummio diruta est. (c) Observe that cases of se, suus, ipse, quisque in the same sentence generally stand next one another. e.g. Suae quisque fortunae faber. Each man is the maker of his own fortune. Sceleris sui sibi conscius. Conscious of his guilt.

PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES

Ad.
Gaul lies towards the north	Gallia vergit ad septemtriones
A battle fought in the neighbourhood of Cannae	Pugna ad Cannas 1 Distinguish carefully: Cannas = to Cannae. Cannis =at Cannae. Ad Cannas = near Cannae. facta
About 10,000 soldiers	Ad decem milia militum
At a fit time, opportunely	Ad tempus
They advanced as far as the gate	Usque ad portam progressi sunt
On the right	Ad dextram
All without exception, all to a man	Omnes ad unum
Finally, at the extremity	Ad ultimum, ad extremum
To speak to the point, to good purpose	Ad rem loqui
For the purpose of keeping up hope	Ad spem servandam

Apud.
In the writings of Caesar.	Apud Caesarem.
At my house.	Apud me.
Among the Gauls	Apud Gallos
A speech delivered before the people	Oratio apud populum habita

Secundum.
To march along the banks of a river	Secundum flumen iter facere
To live in accordance with nature	Secundum naturam vivere

Per.
To ascertain by means of scouts	Per exploratores cognoscere
A man loved for his own merits	Vir per se ipsum amatus
It was owing to you that we did not cross the river	Per te stetit quominus fiumen transi­remus
I beseech you by the gods	Te per deos oro (or Per ego te deos oro)

Sub.
To winter under canvas, in tents	Sub pellibus hiemare.
To halt at the foot of a mountain	Sub monte consistere.
To send an army under the yoke.	Exercitum sub jugum mittere.
Towards evening.	Sub vesperum.

Praeter.
He led his forces past Caesar's camp	Praeter Caesaris castra suas copias transduxit
To speak beside the mark	Praeter rem loqui
To an extraordinary degree, unnaturally	Praeter modum
Beyond hope	Praeter spem
Contrary to expectation	Praeter opinionem
They have no clothing besides skins	Nihil veslitūs praeter pelles habent
You do more than all the rest	Praeter ceteros laboras

Super.
Beyond all others.	Super omnes.

Ab or ā.
At a distance of 15 miles	A milibus passuum quindecim
In the rear, on the side, &c	A tergo, a latere
From sunrise till late in the day	Ab sole orto usque ad multum diei
Since the foundation of Rome	Ab urbe condita
He was on our side	A nobis stetit

Cum.
With the help of the gods	Cum dis
To live virtuously	Cum virtute vivere
Some were tortured and put to death	Pars cum cruciatu necabatur
I have to deal with you	Tecum mihi res est
He wrote with care	Cum diligentia 2 Or magna diligentia. If there is no epithet 'cum ' must generally be used. See Voc. 89. cripsit

De.
To throw oneself down from a wall	De muro se dejicere
About midnight	De media nocte
On purpose	De industria
Unexpectedly	De improviso
We are ruined, it is all up with us	Actum est de nobis

Ex or ē.
To dismount	Ex equo desilire
To fight on foot or on horseback	Pedibus aut ex equis pugnare
In the course of a march	Ex itinere
Over against the town	E regione oppidi
After the consulship of Cotta	E Cottae consulatu
A man miserable after being happy	Homo miser ex beato
Since (of time)	Ex quo
None of the barbarians	Nulli e barbaris
For the good of Gaul	Ex usu Gallorum
In accordance with the treaty	Ex foedere
Partly	Ex parte
Favourably, as we wish	Ex sententia

Pro.
Caesar led his troops before the camp	Caesar pro castris suas copias produxit
To be sure	Pro certo habere
To state as a fact	Pro certo ponere
Considering the size of the population	Pro multitudine hominum
With your usual prudence	Pro tua prudentii
To the best of one's ability, manfully	Pro virili parte
According to time and circumstances	Pro tempore et pro re
He was a father to me	Pro parente mihi fuit
Procousul, propraetor	Pro consule, pro praetore 3 later as single word - Proconsul

Prae.
He displayed a dagger	Prae se pugionem tulit
I made no secret of having done this	Hoc me fecisse semper prae me tuli
They seem cowardly in comparison with the Gauls	Prae Gallis ignavi videntur
I do not know where l am for joy	Prae gaudio nescio ubi sim. 4 Only use prae in this sense with negatives or vix.

In.
To make a bridge over a river	Pontem in flumine facere
To be under arms	In armis esse
At present	In praesenti
Our safety depends upon you	Salus nostra in te posita est
Daily, from day to day (of something increasing)	In dies
For the future	In posterum, in futurum
In turn	In vicem

SYNONYMS

About.	(around, of place), circum, circa.
	(of time or number), circiter, adv. or prp.
	(of number), ad
	(=concerning), de.
Again.	(general word), rursus.
	(a second time), iterum.
	(again and again), saepenumero, identidem.
All.	(general word), omnis.
	(with superlatives), quisque, e.g. optimus quisque, all the best.
	(all together, implying connection), cunctus, universus; e.g. cunctus senatus.
	(the whole, entire), totus, e.g. tota provincia.
Ask.	(questions), rogare, interrogare, quaerere (ex).
	(requests), rogare, petere (ab), poscere, postulare, orare, flagitare. 1 Petere is most frequently used of a request addressed to a superior. Poscere and postulare imply a claim or demand, made as of right. Orare is 'to beg'. Flagitare is used of a vehement or importunate demand.
Bear.	(carry), ferre, portare, vehere. 2 Vehere is most used of conveying by ship, carriage, or animals. Equo vehi = to ride ; nave vehi = to sail.
	(endure), pati, tolerare, ferre. 3 Pati is the most general word. Tolerare is 'to put up with.' Ferre is 'to bear bravely'.
Call.	(summon), vocare, arcessere.
	(name), nominare, appellare, vocare.
	(call to, accost, invoke), appellare.
Each.	(of any number), quisque.
	(of two), uterque.
	(one by one, separately), singuli; e.g. 'singulos interrogavit', he questioned each separately.
Fear.	(general word), timere.
	(often with the idea of respect), vereri.
	(dread, apprehend future evil), metuere. 4 The nouns timor, metus correspond to their verbs. Pavor is 'panic', 'trembling with fear'.
Find.	(a thing or person), invenire, reperire. 5 Reperire most often means finding something lost and searched for.
	(find out facts), cognoscere, comperire.
Follow.	Sequor and compounds.
	Consequor, assequor = come up with, reach.
	Prosequor = escort.
	Subsequor = follow close after, come next.
	Persequor = follow up, follow to the end.
Happen.	(generally of bad fortune), accidit.
	(generally of good fortune), contingit.
	(result, happen as result of something else), evenit.
Kill.	(general word), interficere.
	(in fighting), occidere.
	(especially of hunger, poison, etc.), necare.
	(massacre, implying cruelty), trucidare.
	(murder), jugulare.
Know,	(know mentally, e.g. languages, sciences, etc.; know how to do a thing ), scire. 6 The nouns scientia and cognitio correspond to scire and cognoscere; knowledge of persons is to be translated by consuetudo.
Knowledge.	(know persons), novisse.
	(learn facts), cognoscere, comperire.
	(perceive, learn by the senses), percipere, sentire.
	(understand), intellegere.
	(recognise persons or things known before), agnoscere.
Land.	(opposed to sea), terra.
	(a country, district), regio, terra.
	(lands), agri, e.g. agros populatus est.
	(native land), patria.
	(ground soil), solum.
Last.	(furthest, i.e. first or last, of a series, in place or time), ultimus, extremus ; e.g. extremum oppidum Allobrogum.
	(utmost, extreme), the same words; e.g. ultimum supplicium.
	(immediately preceding), proximus; e.g. proxima nocte.
	(latest), novissimus; e.g. qui novissimus venit, necatur.
Lose.	(wilfully), perdere.
	(lose by carelessness, etc.), amittere.
	(let slip opportunity, etc.), omittere, dimittere.
Man.	(human being, opp. to animals), homo.
	(opp. to women, children, cowards), vir.
Mind.	(general words), animus, mens. 7 Animus is more often used of the emotions, mens of the intellect.
	(talent, intellect), ingenium.
More.	(comparing qualities or acts), magis; e.g. magis consilio quam virtute.
	(comparing degree, quantity), plus; e.g. valet salus plus quam libido.
	(rather, implying preference), potius; e.g. Consilium potius quam vis postulatur.
	(usually of time or number), amplius; e.g. amplius horis quattuor.
New, Old.	That which has lasted a long time is vetus, and opposed to recens, fresh, newly made. That which existed in former times is antiquus, and opposed to novus, new, not having previously existed.
People,	(a 'nation ' in the political sense), populus
Race	(a race, a people), genus (?). 8 Only use 'genus' for 'race' where it means 'family'; e.g. nobili genere ortus. 'People' in the sense of 'men generally' (as in 'men say' 'on dit') is either omitted, or may be translated by homines, especially where it means 'mankind generally'.
	(a tribe, generally of distant, barbarous tribes), natio.
Power.	(legal, official power), potestas.
	(political power, not necessarily due to official position), potentia.
	(influence, importance, often personal influence), auctoritas.
	(supreme magisterial or kingly power, especially from the military point of view), imperium.
	(dominion, sway), ditio, potestas, imperium; e.g. in potestate Populi Romani esse, to be subject to the Romans.
	(royal power), regnum.
	(tyranny, absolute rule), dominatus.
	(physical power, strength), vires.
See.	(general ward), videre.
	(catch sight of), conspicere, conspicari.
	(discern, see clearly), perspicere, pres. and imp. tenses of cernere.
	(gaze at), spectare, intueri.
	For 'see' in the sense of 'understand' cf. 'Know'.
Show.	(display, hold out), ostendere.
	(show off, parade), ostentare.
	(point out, especially of facts, but also 'to point out a road', &c.), demonstrare.
	(produce, bring out, show up), exhibere.
	(show qualities), praestare; e.g. praestare virtutem, or se praebere fortem.
Speak.	(say something, express thought), dicere.
	(talk), loqui.
	(speak to, accost ), alloqui, appellare.
	(address), alloqui.
	(make a speech), orationem habere.
Take.	(general word), capere.
	(take up, assume; e.g. arma), sumere.
	(undertake ; e.g. bellum), suscipere.
	(take with the hand or arrest), comprehendere.
Want.	(be without), carere.
	(need), egere, indigere (or use opus esse).
	(wish for), velle, cupere.
	(to be wanting, to fail), deficere.
Work.	(labour, toil), labor.
	('a work', 'works'; most frequently the result of labour), opus; e.g. opera, military fortifications.

Notice the following Verbs, which in English may be either Transitive or Intransitive.

	TRANSITIVE	INTRANSITIVE
Burn	incendere, urere	ardere
Change	mutare	mutari
Collect	colligere, cogere	convenire
Embark	imponere in navem	conscendere (in) navem
Increase	augere	crescere
Join	conjungere	se conjungere cum
Land	exponere in terram	egredi e nave
Leave	relinquere	abire, discedere
Move	movere	se movere
Return	reddere	redire
Scatter	dispergere	dispergi
Surrender	tradere, dedere	se tradere, se dedere
Trust	mandare, committere	confidere, credere.
Turn	convertere	converti, se convertere.