Usor:Tchougreeff/QUOMODO sive HOW TO/HCP

STYLE GUIDE After LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION Based On Cicero by Henry Carr Pearson

Part I PART I

1 AGREEMENT OF NOUNS, ADJECTIVES, VERBS

1. Apposition. - A noun in apposition with another noun agrees with it in case, and, when it is possible, in gender and number. Servius rex, Servius the king. quattuor hic primum ōmen equōs vidi, here I saw four horses, the first omen.

2. A noun in apposition with a possessive pronoun or adjective may be in the genitive, because the possessive implies a genitive. nōmen meum absentis, my name in my absence (i.e. the name of me absent). litterās Graecās senex didici, I learned Greek when an old man.

3. A predicate noun is one connected with the subject by some form of the verb sum or a similar verb (i.e. fiō, become; videor, seem ; maneō, remain; creor, be elected; appellor, be called; habeor, be held, regarded): Cicerō ōrātor fuit, Cicero was an orator. Numa creātus est rex, Numa was elected king. Orestem se esse dixit, he said that he was Orestes.

4. An attributive adjective belonging to two or more nouns regularly agrees with the nearest : pater tuus et māter, your father and mother.

5. A predicate adjective is generally plural when it modifies two or more singular subjects; it is masculine if the subjects are living beings of different genders, and neuter if the subjects are things. If the subjects represent both living beings and things, there is no fixed rule:

6. A noun in apposition is often expressed in English by a clause of time, cause, etc.; pater sororque occisi sunt, father and sister were killed. labor voluptāsque inter se sunt iūncta, labor and delight are bound together.

7. Sometimes an adjective or a participle does not agree with a noun according to strict grammatical form, but according to the sense or natural gender of the noun : hominum milia sex perterriti, six thousand men were badly frightened.

8. When a verb has two or more singular subjects, the verb is either

(a) plural, or

(b) singular, in agreement with the nearest subject: pater et avus mortui sunt, his father and grandfather are dead. senātus populusque Rōmānus voluit, the senate and people of Rome ordained.

9. A collective noun commonly takes a verb in the singular, but the plural is often used when individuals are thought of: senātus haec intellegit, the senate is aware of this. cum tanta multitūdō lapides conicerent, when such a crowd was throwing stones.

10. When the subjects differ in person, the verb agrees with the first person rather than the second, and with the second rather than the third: si tū et Tullia valetis, ego et Cicerō valemus, if you and Tullia are well, Cicero and I are well.

2 THE ACCUSATIVE CASE

11. a

12. The direct object of a transitive verb is put in the accusative: librum scripsit, he wrote a book.

13. The meaning of a verb, even of one ordinarily intransitive, may be emphasized or·more exactly defined by adding an accusative of kindred derivation. This is called the Cognate accusative, and is usually modified by an adjective: tūtam vitam vivere, to lead a secure life.

14. Many verbs of making, choosing, calling, showing, and the like, may take two accusatives, one of the person or thing affected, the other a predicate accusative: urbem Rōmam vocāvit, he called the city Rome.

15. Some verbs of asking, demanding, teaching, and concealing may take two accusatives - one of the person, and one of the thing: pācem te poscimus, we demand peace of you. 1. Some of these verbs may take the ablative of the person with a preposition instead of the accusative. So, generally, petō (ab), seek (from); postulō (ab), demand (of); quaerō (ab, de, ex), ask (of): quaerit ex sōlō ea, he asks him in private about those things. pācem ā vōbis petimus, we implore peace from you.

16. The accusative is used to express the duration of time or the extent of space: fossās quindecim pedes lātās, trenches fifteen feet broad. quadrāgintā annōs vixit, he lived forty years. I. Emphasis is sometimes given by using the preposition per, as: lūdi per decem dies, games for ten days.

17. Proper names of towns and of small islands or peninsulas are put in the accusative to denote the end or limit toward which the motion of the verb is directed: missi legāti Athenās sunt, ambassadors were sent to Athens. 1. The accusatives domum and rūs are used like proper names of towns: domum reductus est, he was conducted home. ego rūs ibō, I shall go into the country. 2. Other designations of place than those mentioned above require a preposition (in or ad) to denote the limit of motion: in Italiam venit, he came into ltaly. legiōnes ad urbem addūcit, he is leading the legions to (or toward) the city. 3. When domum is modified in any way, except by a possessive pronoun or a genitive, the preposition in is commonly used: in illam domum, into that house. domōs suās, to their homes.

18. An exclamation, if limited by an adjective or a genitive, may be expressed by the accusative; me miserum, ah, wretched me! or dear, dear me! ō fallācem spem, oh, deceptive hope!

3 THE GENITIVE CASE

19. a.

20. The genitive is originarily used to express the dependence of one noun upon another. This relation is often, but not always, expressed in English by of or 's or s': Alexandri equus, Alexander's horse, or the horse of Alexander.

21. If a noun of action or feeling is limited by another noun, the dependent genitive expresses either 1. the subject of the action or feeling, and is called the subjective genitive: amor patris, the love of a father, or a father's love (i.e. the love felt by a father); 2. or the object of the action or feeling, called the objective genitive: amor patris, love for father (i.e. the love toward a father).

22. The genitive is used to denote quality, but only when the limiting noun is modified by an adjective: vir summae virtūtis, a man of the highest courage. 1. If the noun expressing the quality is not modified, the idea of quality is expressed by an adjective rather than a genitive. For example, "a man of courage" is not to be rendered vir virtūtis, but vir fortis.

23. Genitive of the Whole, or Partitive Genitive. - The genitive is used to express the whole of which a part is taken: duo milia peditum, two thousand foot soldiers. minus dubitātiōnis, less hesitation. The following are a few of the common words followed by this construction: plūs, more. nihil, nothing. plūrimum, most. satis, enough. multum, much. parum, not enough. minus, less. quod, quid, which, what. paulum, little. aliquid, something. 1. Numerals and quidam are generally followed by ex or de and the ablative, rather than a partitive genitive. Also occasionally other words: ūnus ex militibus, one of the soldiers. pauci de nostris cadunt, a few of our men fall.

24. The genitive is used with many adjectives to limit the extent of their application. Such adjectives are those signifying desire, knowledge, familiarity, memory, participation, power, fullness, and their opposites: peritus belli, skilled in war. cupidus rerum novārum, eager for revolution.

Some of the common adjectives of this class are: cupidus, eager, desirous. memor, mindful, remembering cōnscius, conscious, aware. expers, having no part, free from. peritus, experienced, skillful. potens, ruling, controlling. insuetus, unaccustomed, inexperienced. particeps, sharing. plenus, full.

25. Verbs of remembering and forgetting memini, reminiscor, and obliviscor - generally take

(a) the genitive when referring to persons: oblitus sum mei, I have forgotten myself.

(b) sometimes the genitive, and sometimes the accusative, when referring to things.

(c) The object is regularly accusative when it is a neuter pronoun: meministine nōmina, do you remember the names? reminiscere veteris incommodi, remember the former disaster; haec memini, I remember this.

26. Verbs of accusing, convicting, condemning, and acquitting, take the genitive to express the charge: accūsātus est prōditiōnis, he was charged with treason.

27. The impersonal verbs paenitet, repent; miseret, pity, taedet, be weary; pudet, be ashamed; piget, disgusts, take the accusative to express the person affected, and the genitive to express the person or thing toward whom the feeling is directed : tui me miseret, I pity you (literally, it pities me of you). eum taedet vitae, he is tired of life.

(a) misereor also governs the genitive: miseremini sociōrum, pity the allies.

28. interest and refert, it interests or concerns take the genitive of the person concerned; but in the case of the personal pronoun the ablative singular feminine of the possessive is generally used: patris interest, it concerns the father. magis rei pūblicae interest quam meā, it concerns the public welfare more than me.

29. A few neuter adjectives of quantity are put in the genitive with verbs of valuing to denote the amount of estimation. Such genitives are : māgni, plūris, plūrimi; parvi, minōris, minimi; tanti, quanti.

The common verbs with which these genitives are used are: aestimō, faciō, putō, habeō, and sum: ea māgni aestimantur, those things are highly valued (literally, those things are estimated of great (value)). est mihi tanti, it is worth my while (literally, it is of so much to me).

4 THE DATIVE CASE

30. a

31. Indirect Object. - The dative is used to express the object that is indirectly affected by the action of the verb: hanc pecūniam mihi dat, he gives me this money (pecūniam is the direct, and mihi the indirect object).

(a) With certain verbs that imply motion it is often difficult to distinguish between the dative of the indirect object and the accusative of the limit of motion (cf. 17). Generally the accusative (with or without a preposition) is used when the idea of motion prevails: litterās quās ad Pompeium scripsi, the letter which I have written (and sent) to Pompei. mihi litterās mittere, to send a letter to me.

32. Most verbs signifying to favor, help, please, trust, and their contraries; also to believe, persuade, command, obey, serve, resist, envy, threaten, pardon, and spare, take the dative. Some of the more common of these verbs are: persuādeō, persuade fidō, cōnfidō, trust. pāreō, obey licet, it is permitted. parcō, spare. credō, believe, trust. imperō, order. faveō, favor. resistō, resist. placeō, please. ignōscō, pardon invideō, envy noceō, harm studeō, be eager for cur mihi invides, why do you envy me? huic imperat, he orders him. 1. Some verbs apparently of the same meaning govern the accusative; such as iubeō, order iuvō, adiuvō, help delectō, please laedō, injure 2. If these verbs are used in the passive, the dative is retained and the verbs are impersonal: nōbis persuādetur, we are persuaded.

33. Most verbs compounded with ad, ante, con, in, inter, ob, post, prae, prō, sub, super, and sometimes circum, govern the dative case. If transitive, such verbs may take an accusative besides: cōnsiliis obstāre, to oppose plans. pecūniae pudōrem antepōnit, he puts honor before money.

34. Dative of Possession. - The English verb have is often expressed in Latin by the dative and some form of sum. The possessor is expressed by the dative, and the object possessed is the subject of sum. The English sentence, "The master has a book", may be expressed in either of the following ways : 1. magistrō est liber. 2. magister habet librum.

35. The dative is used with many adjectives of fitness, nearness, likeness, service, inclination, and their opposites. Some of the more common adjectives are: similis, like. aptus, suitable for. dissimilis, unlike. pār, equal to. adversus, opposite. aequus, equal to. iniquus, not equal to. amicus, friendly. proximus, next to. cārus, dear. ūtilis, useful to. familiāris, friendly to. idōneus, suitable for. alienus, unfavorable, foreign. castris idōneum locum, a place suitable for a camp. filius patri similis, a son like his father. 1. Similis and a few others also sometimes govern the genitive (cf. 24).

36. Dative of Reference. - The dative is used to denote the person to whom the thought of the sentence is of special interest. This dative is translated into English in a variety of ways : laudāvit mihi frātrem, he praised my brother (mihi shows that it was out of regard for me, while meum would imply no such motive). nōbis divites esse volumus, we wish to be rich for ourselves.

37. Dative of Purpose or End. - The dative is often used to denote the purpose, use, or result of a thing, often with another dative of the person for whom. This construction is most common with the verb sum: māgnō ūsui nostris fuit, it was a great help to our men (literally, it was for a great help to our men). tertiam aciem nostris subsidiō misit, he sent the third line as a relief to our men. The datives most frequently used are: usui, subsidiō, praesidiō, auxiliō, cūrae, mūneri, odiō, bonō, impedimentō.

5 THE ABLATIVE CASE

38. Verbs indicating separation or privation take an ablative to denote the thing from which the separation takes place. A preposition, ab or ex, is often used with these verbs, and regularly when the ablative denotes a person: māgnō me metū liberābis, you will free me from great fear. secernantur ā nōbis, let them be separated from us. auxiliō eget, he needs help. de prōvinciā decedere, to withdraw from one's province.

39. a

40. The ablative, with or without a preposition, de, ex, or ab, is used to denote the source from which a thing is derived, or the material of which it consists. Source - amplissimō genere nātus, born of an influential family. Material (ex is regularly used) - pōcula ex aurō, cups of gold. An adjective could also be used, as pōcula aurea. Also a genitive of material, pōcula auri.

41. The ablative with ā or ab is used with passive verbs to denote the personal agent; ab his fit initium, a beginning is made by them.

42. An ablative may be used with a comparative instead of quam, than and a nominative or accusative: patria mihi vitā cārior est, my country is dearer to me than life (quam vita could be used instead of vitā). tui studiōsior sum quam illius, I am fonder of you than of him (here the ablative could not be used).

43. The ablative may denote the cause, means, or instrument: fortūnā amici gaudeō, I rejoice at the good fortune of my friend (i.e. on account of, etc.). lacte atque pecore vivunt, they live upon milk and flesh (i.e. by means of milk and flesh). 1. The ablative of the agent (which requires ā or ab) must be carefully distinguished from the ablative of means or instrument, which uses no preposition. See 41.

44. The deponent verbs ūtor, use, fruor, enjoy , fungor, perform; potior, get possession of; vescor, eat ; and their compounds, govern the ablative: vitā fruitur, he enjoys life.

45. The ablative, with or without cum, may be used to express the manner of an action. If the noun is modified by an adjective, cum is often omitted, otherwise cum is regularly used. Allobroges māgnā cum cūrā suōs finis tuentur, the Allobroges guard their own territory with great care. (Note the position of cum; māgnā curā would also mean with great care.) cum celeritāte venit, he came with speed (speedily).

(a) Some nouns that are unmodified express manner without cum: iūre, rightly; iniūriā, wrongly; vī, by force, forcibly; cōnsiliō, on purpose; casū, by chance; cōnsuetūdine, mōre, according to custom.

46. To denote accompaniment, the ablative is used with cum. But cum is often omitted in military expressions where an adjective is used: cum comitātibus profectus est, he set out with his attendants.

47. Ablative of Specification. - The ablative is used: with nouns, verbs, and adjectives to show that in respect to which the statement applies: reliquōs Gallōs virtūte praecedunt, they excel the rest of the Gauls in courage; claudus pede, lame in his foot.

(a) Note the phrases: minor nātū, younger (literally, less in respect to age or birth). māior nātū, older.

(b) On this principle the adjectives dignus and indignus govern the ablative: digni honōre, worthy of honor.

48. Ablative of Degree of Difference. - With words expressing comparison the ablative is used to denote the amount or degree of difference between the objects. Especially common are the ablatives paulō, little, multō, much; tantō, quantō, hōc, quō. tribus pedibus altior, three feet higher (literally, higher by three feet). multō me vigilāre ācrius, that I watch much more sharply (literally, more sharply by much).

49. Ablative of Quality. - The ablative, modified by an adjective or genitive, is used to denote quality: summā virtūte adulescens, a youth of the highest worth.

(a) The genitive case likewise may describe a noun, or express quality. See 22.

50. The Ablative of Price. - The definite price of a thing is expressed by the ablative: servum quinque minis emit, he bought the slave for five minae. i. For the genitive of indefinite price, see 29.

51. Ablative of Time. - The ablative is used to express

(a) Time when an action takes place: posterō die movet castra, on the next day he moves his camp.

(b) Time within which an action takes place. The preposition in is sometimes used : his paucis diebus, within these few days.

(c) For the accusative of the duration of time, see 16.

52. The ablative absolute is explained in the lesson on the participle. See 89.

7 PRONOUNS: DEMONSTRATIVE, PERSONAL, REFLEXIVE, POSSESSIVE

53. a

54. b

55. c

56. Demonstrative pronouns point out what object is referred to, and show whether it is here or there. They are :

(a) hic, this (i.e. the object that is near where I am).

(b) iste, that (that near you).

(c) ille, that (that yonder, over there, not near the speaker).

57. a

58. b

59. Hic is, therefore, called the demonstrative of the first person. It is used as follows :

(a) To point out the object that is near the speaker (in time, place, thought, or on the written page).

(b) To refer to the present as contrasted with the past: haec tempora, modern times, present times.

(c) To refer to what follows: eius belli haec fuit causa, the cause of this war was as follows.

(d) Sometimes to refer to what precedes: his Caesar ita respondit, to them (the persons just mentioned) Caesar thus replied.

(e) In reference to two objects previously mentioned, hic generally refers to the latter one, and is translated, the latter. Ille refers to the former, and is translated the former.

60. Iste is called the demonstrative of the second person. It often implies contempt, as: iste Manlius, that (fellow) Manlius of yours.

61. Ille is called the demonstrative of the third person. It is often translated:

(a) The former [see 59, 5].

(b) That well-known, that notorious, that famous, etc. Māgnus ille Alexander, that famous Alexander the Great. (Note the position of ille)

62. Learn the following adverbs of place:

PLACE WHERE	PLACE TO WHICH	PLACE FROM WHICH
hīc, here.	hūc, hither.	hinc, hence.
istīc, there.	istūc, thither.	istinc, thence.
illīc, there.	illūc, thither.	illinc, thence.

63. The determinative pronoun is, ea, id, that, is not as strong as ille. It is used

(a) As a pronoun of the third person, meaning he, she, it, they, when one needs to be expressed. See 64. As an antecedent of the relative, is qui, he, who, etc.

(b) The English expression "that of" is not expressed by is and a genitive, but by a genitive alone or by the repetition of the noun to which "that" refers: in exercitū Sullae et posteā in Crassi fuerat, he had been in the army of Sulla, and afterwards in that of Crassus.

(c) Is has often the force of tālis, such: nōn sum is qui terrear, I am not such a person as to be frightened. 6

64. The personal pronouns ego, I; tū, you; is, ea, id, he, she, it, are used as subjects only to show emphasis or avoid ambiguity; te vocō, I'm calling you; but ego te vocō, I (emphatic) am calling you (such emphasis might be expressed in English by the translation, "It is I who am calling you").

(a) The genitive forms mei, tui, sui, vestri, nostri, are chiefiy used as objective genitives. See 21.2 The genitive plural forms in -ūm (nostrūm, vestrūm) are generally used as partitive genitives: desiderium vestri, longing for you; nemō vestrūm, no one of you.

(b) Never express my, your, our, etc., by the genitive of the pronoun. Use the proper possessive adjective. See 67.

65. A reflexive pronoun refers to the subject of the sentence. There are two uses.

(a) It may refer to the subject of the clause in which it stands (direct reflexive): se videt, he sees himself.

(b) It may be used in a subordinate clause and refer, not to the subject of its own clause, but to the subject of the principal clause (indirect reflexive): cum intellegeret sibi bellum gerendum, when he perceived that he must wage war. (sibi refers to the subject of intellegeret.)

66. The personal pronouns of the first and second person are also used as reflexives. But there is a special reflexive for the third person: sui, etc., himself, herself, itself; (plural) themselves.

67. The possessive pronouns are : meus, my, mine; noster, our, ours; tuus, your, yours; vester, your, yours (plural); suus, his, hers, its, their, theirs (reflexive). Note the following:

(a) They are all declined like adjectives of the first and second declension, and agree in gender, number, and case with the noun to which they belong, and not with the noun to which they refer: suam mātrem occidit, he slew his own mother.

(b) They are generally not expressed in Latin, except for the purpose of clearness: videō patrem, I see my father. (To express I see your father it would be necessary to use videō tuum patrem.)

(c) The possessive pronouns of the third person in English, his, hers, its, their, may refer either to the subject of the verb (i.e. be reflexive), or refer to some other person than the subject. When reflexive, suus must be used, otherwise use the genitive of is: laudāvit suum frātrem, he praised his brother. (eius frātrem would mean his brother, but someone else's brother.)

68. Reciprocal Pronouns. - The Latin has no special reciprocal pronoun (each other, one another). The reciprocal idea is expressed by the phrases inter nōs, inter vōs, inter se. See 73, 2. obsides inter se dederunt, they gave one another hostages (literally, they gave hostages among themselves).

69. Summary of personal, reflexive, and possessive pro­ nouns:

	PERSONAL	REFLEXIVE	POSSESSIVE
FIRST PERSON	ego	mei1	meus, -a, -um, my, mine. noster, nostra, nostrum, ours.
SECOND PERSON	tū	tui1	tuus,-a, -um, your,yours (sing.). vester, vestra, vestrum, your, yours (pl.).
THIRD PERSON	is, ea, id	sui1	suus, -a, -um, his, hisown, hers, her own,etc. (reflexive). When not reflexive, use genitive of is, ea, id.
1

8 PRONOUNS (CONTINUED). CORRELATIVES.

70. a

71. Relative Pronouns. - The relative pronoun qui, quae, quod, who, which, that, agrees with its antecedent in gender and number, but its case depends upon the construction of the clause in which it stands: pecūnia quam habeō, the money that I have. (Here quam is accusative because it is the direct object of habeō.) gladius quō pugnābat, the sword with which he fought. (Here quō is ablative because it expresses the instrument.)

(a) The relative generally agrees in gender and number with a predicate noun of its own clause, rather than with an antecedent of different gender and number: Celtae, quae est tertia pars, the Celts, who are the third part.

(b) Sometimes the relative takes its gender and number from the real meaning of its antecedent, rather than its actual form: nostra qui adsumus salūs, the safety of us who are present. (Here qui agrees with nostrūm implied in nostra.)

(c) The antecedent of the relative is sometimes omitted, especially if it is indefinite : sunt qui, etc., there are men who.

(d) In English the relative is sometimes omitted, but never in Latin. Thus, the book I have must be expressed in Latin liber quem habeō.

(e) The antecedent of the relative is often incorporated in the relative clause: urbem quam statuō vestra est, the city which I am building is yours (literally, what city I am building is yours ).

(f) A relative is used at the beginning of a sentence or clause, where in English a demonstrative or personal pro­ noun would be used: quae cum ita sint, since these things are so. quō factum est, from this it resulted.

(g) A relative clause in Latin is often used when the corresponding construction is not employed in English: the bystanders, qui adsunt (literally, those who are present). the standard bearer, qui aquilam ferebat (literally, he who carried the eagle). the existing laws, leges quae nunc sunt (literally, the laws which now exist [are]). the plaintiff, ille qui petit (literally, he who sues).

72. Indefinite pronouns are used to indicate that some person or thing is referred to, without indicating just what one. They vary in degree of indefiniteness. Quis is the least definite, and quidam the most definite. The meanings of the following indefinite pronouns should be thoroughly learned: quis (generally used only after si, nisi, ne, num) some one, any one aliquis quisquam any one (used chiefly in negative and conditional sentences) quivis any one you please quilibet quisque each quidam a certain, a

(a) Quis, some, any, is never the first word in its clause: si quid his . . . accidat, if anything should happen to these.

(b) Quisque, each, should be distinguished from omnis, every. It is not often used in the plural. quisque regularly follows the word to which it belongs.

(c) Quisque is often used with the superlative: optimus quisque, all the best (literally, each best one).

73. Alius, other (of more than two), and alter, other (of two only), are used idiomatically as follows:

(a) In pairs, alius . . . alius, one . . . another; alter, alter, the one . . the other; alter exercitum perdidit, alter vendidit, one ruined the army, the other sold it.

(b) When repeated in different cases or when used with the corresponding adverb, they express in a condensed form various idiomatic phrases: alius alium incūsat, one accuses one, another another (literally, another accuses another, i.e. each one accuses some one else). alii aliam in partem, (they fled) some in one direction, others in another.

74. Ipse, self, emphasizes the substantive with which it is used. Do not confuse it with the reflexive (65, 66). "Self" in English may be either intensive or reflexive, while the Latin has a special word for each : se videt, he sees himself (reflexive). ipse puerum videt, he himself sees the boy (intensive). Note the following uses and meanings of ipse:

(a) very, mere, in person, own accord, etc. eō ipsō die, on that very day. ipsā audāciā, by mere audacity. ipse aderat, he was present in person. valvae se ipsae aperuerunt, the doors opened of their own accord.

(b) When it emphasizes a reflexive, it is put in the nominative rather than in agreement with the reflexive : se ipse continere nōn potest, he cannot contain himself (not se ipsum).

(c) It is sometimes used instead of an indirect reflexive: legātōs misit qui ipsi vitam peterent, he sent messengers to beg life for himself (here ipsi is used instead of sibi).

75. The interrogative pronoun is quis (qui), quae, quid (quod), who, which, what? The forms qui and quod are generally used as interrogative adjectives: qui locus est, what place is there? Quis and quid are generally used as pronouns (i.e. no noun is expressed): quis clārior Themistocle, who is more famous than Themistocles?

76. Idem, the same, is often equivalent to the English likewise, at the same time, also, yet : quod idem mihi contigit, which likewise (or also) happened to me (literally, which, the same thing). quidquid honestum est, idem est ūtile, whatever is honorable is at the same time advantageous. cum . . . dicat, negat idem, although he says, etc., yet hi denies, etc. (literally, he, the same man, denies). 1. For idem atque (ac), the same as, see 82, 3.

9 QUESTIONS. NEGATIVE CONNECTIVES

77. a

78. Direct questions in Latin are not distinguished by the order of the words, as in English. They are introduced by the following special words:

(a) -ne. This is an enclitic, and is added to the emphatic word, generally the first word. Such a question merely asks for information : mānsitne Rōmae? did he stay at Rome?

(b) nōnne. This particle implies that the answer "yes" is expected : nōnne mānsit Rōmae? didn't he stay at Rome, or he staid at Rome, didn't he? (answer "yes " expected).

(c) num. This particle implies the answer "no." num mānsit Rōmae ? did he stay at Rome ? or he didn't stay at Rome, did he? (answer "no" expected ).

79. Direct questions that are introduced by the various interrogative pronouns and adverbs, such as quis, qui, ubi, quālis, quot, etc., are like the corresponding English questions, and involve no difficulties. See 75.

80. In double or alternative questions, utrum, -ne, whether, or occasionally no particle at all, is used in the first member; in the second, an, or, is used. In direct questions, if the second member is negative, annōn, or·not, is used; in indirect questions, necne. The following table summarizes the various forms: FIRST MEMBER SECOND AND SUBSEQUENT MEMBERS utrum, whether -ne. - an EXAMPLES : utrum bonum an malum est ? is it good or bad? bonumne an malum est ? bonum an malum est ? mānsitne Rōmae annōn ? did he stay at Rome or not?

81. Answers. - Latin has no words meaning exclusively "yes " or "no." Answers are expressed as follows :

(a) By repeating the verb: mānsitne Rōmae ? did he stay at Rome ? mānsit, yes (or nōn mānsit, no).

(b) By the following adverbs and phrases:

i. For "yes," ita, so, true, etc. ita est, it is so, etc. etiam, even so, yes, etc. sāne, surely, no doubt, etc. verō, in truth, true, no doubt, etc. certe, certainly, unquestionably, etc.; and others.

ii. For "no": nōn, not (so). minime, not at all. nūllō modō, by no means. nōn quidem, certainly not,· why, no ,· etc.; and others.

82. Connectives. - Note the following facts about the connection of coōrdinate words and clauses:

(a) et is the most common particle of connection, and unites likes and unlikes.

(b) -que (enclitic) unites more closely than et. It combines things that belong closely to each other, and is appended to the first word of its clause (unless that word is a preposition of one syllable). periculis insidiisque, dangers and plots.

(c) atque (ac) generally emphasizes the second of the two things mentioned, as the English " and also," "and in fact," "and indeed." After words of likeness and difference, atque (ac) may have the force of as, than. Ac never stands before vowels or h. intrā moenia atque in sinū urbis sunt hostes, within the walls, and, in fact, in the heart of the city are the enemies. ego idem sentiō ac tū, I think the same as you.

(d) etiam, even, still, emphasizes the word to which it belongs, and which it generally precedes.

(e) quoque, also, immediately follows the word to which it belongs.

(f) When three or more words are to be connected, either (1) connect all by et, or (2) omit all conjunctions, or (3) connect the last two by -que.

uxōres, et liberi, et bona	wives, children, and property
uxōres, liberi, bona
uxōres, liberi, bonaque

(g) Instead of et and the negative, neque (nec) and the positive is generally used in Latin. Such combinations give us the following phrases: and not, neque (nec), literally, nor, and no, neque ūllus, nor any, and never, neque umquam, nor ever, and no one, neque quisquam, nor any one, and nothing neque quidquam, nor anything.

(h) Two adjectives belonging to one noun are connected by et, and generally follow the noun: vir clārus et fortis, a famous brave man.

10 PARTICIPLE - ITS USES AND TENSES

83. a

84. The participle is a verbal adjective. As a verb, it may govern a case; as an adjective, it agrees with a substantive. The tenses of the participle denote time, not absolutely, as in the indicative mood, but with reference to the time of the verb of the clause in which it stands. The participle has the following tenses: Present: representing an action as in progress at the time indicated by the tense of the verb:

videō	eum id agentem	I see him as he DOES it (literally, him doing it)
videbam		I saw him as he WAS DOING it
videbō		I shall see him as he WILL BE DOING it

Note that the participle in these examples expresses no absolute time. It describes an action that is going on at the time of the main verb. Perfect: representing an action as completed at the time indicated by the tense of the verb:

cohortātus suōs	abiit	he ENCOURAGED his troops, and went away (literally, having encouraged his troops, he went away)
	abit	he ENCOURAGES his troops, and goes away
	abibit	he WILL ENCOURAGE his troops, and then go away

Note again in these examples the various meanings of the perfect participle, yet they all express action that is completed before the action of the main verb begins. Future: expressing subsequent action: videbam eum id āctūrum, I saw him when he was intending to do it.

85. The following outline shows how the tenses of the participle may be formed from the stems obtained from the principal parts:

		Present stem.	Perf. act. stem.	Perf. pass. stem
PRINCIPAL PARTS.	agō	age|re	ēg|i	āct|us

TENSE	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT	pres. stem + ns	wanting (missing)
FUTURE	perf. pass. stem + ūrus	Gerundive. Pres. stem + ndus
PERFECT	wanting (missing)	the last one of the principal parts

1. Deponent verbs have the participles of both voices.

2. The missing perfect active participle is supplied by the perfect passive participle of the deponent verbs; if there is no deponent verb with the necessary meaning, clauses with cum, postquam, etc., may be used: having done this, he went away, cum id fecisset, abiit.

3. The missing present passive participle is supplied by clauses with dum, cum, or quod.

4. The perfect participles of some deponents are used practically like our present participle: ūsus, using. secūtus, following. arbitrātus, ratus, thinking. solitus, accustomed. ausus, daring. And some others.

86. a

87. Participles are used in Latin more extensively than in English. They may express time, condition, cause, manner, means, concession, circumstance. Study carefully the following examples which show the various relations that the participle expresses:

(a) Time. milites cohortātus . . . proeli committendi signum dedit, after he had encouraged his soldiers, he gave the signal to begin battle.

(b) Condition. damnātum poenam sequi oportebat, if condemned, the punishment must follow.

(c) Cause. hōrum auctōritāte finitimi adducti retinent, since their neighbors were influenced by their authority, they retained.

(d) Manner. Rōmāni grātulantes Horātium accipiunt, the Romans receive Horatius with congratulations (congratulating).

(e) Means. sōl oriens diem cōnficit, the sun, by its rising, makes the day.

(f) Concession. repulsus in oppidum, tamen . . . impetrāvit, although he had been driven back into the town, yet he gained, etc. It will be seen from these examples that clauses beginning with "if," "when," "after," "although," "since," "while," etc., and relative clauses may often be rendered in Latin by the participle.

88. When a verb in English is coordinate (connected by "and") with another verb, it may often be rendered in Latin by a participle in agreement with the subject or object of that verb: cōpiās eductās ex castris instrūxerunt, they led their troops out of camp and drew them up (literally, they drew up their troops HAVING BEEN LED out of camp).

89. Ablative Absolute. - A noun or pronoun in the ablative, with a participle agreeing with it, may be used to express any of the relations mentioned in 87. The word "absolute " means that this construction can be used only when the noun has no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence: armis obsidibusque acceptis Crassus . . . profectus est, after arms and hostages had been received, Crassus set out, etc. The student will notice that it is possible to use the ablative absolute in the above example because armis . . . acceptis has nothing to do grammatically with the main clause, Crassus set out.

(a) The ablative absolute is often used to supply the lack of a perfect active participle [85, 2]. If we wished to express Caesar having done this, we must say quō factō Caesar (this having been done, Caesar).

(b) The participle is sometimes omitted, and two substantives, or a substantive and an adjective, are used in the ablative absolute construction: duce Brūtō, under the leadership of Brutus.

11 GERUND AND GERUNDIVE. THE PERIPHRASIC CONJUGATIONS. SUPINE

90. a

91. The gerund is a verbal noun. It has only the oblique cases of the singular, i.e. genitive, dative, accusative, and ablative. As a noun the gerund may itself be governed by other words; as a verb it may take an object. Examples of its use in different cases:

• Genitive.

– ars vivendi, art of living.

– agendi causā, for the sake of doing.

– cupidus videndi, desirous of seeing.

• Dative.

– aqua ūtilis est bibendō, water is useful for drinking. The dative is not often used.

• Accusative. This case is used only with ad (sometimes in) to denote purpose.

– nūlla res tantum ad dicendum prōficit, etc., nothing is as profitable for speaking, etc.

• Ablative.

– deterrere ā scribendō, to deter from writing.

– mens discendō alitur et cōgitandō, the mind grows by learning and reflection.

NOTE. - As a rule, the gerund takes a direct object only when used in the genitive or the ablative (without a preposition).

92. The gerundive is a verbal adjective and is passive in its literal meaning. See 85. Therefore, being an adjective, it always agrees with a substantive: cōnsilia urbis delendae, plans for destroying the city (literally, plans of the city to be destroyed). ad pācem petendam venerunt, they came to seek peace (literally, they came for peace to be asked).

93. Gerundive Construction used instead of the Gerund. - When the genitive or ablative of the gerund would have a direct object, the gerundive is generally used instead. See 91, note.

GERUND CONSTRUCTION	GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION (preferable)
cupidus pācem petendi	cupidus pācis petendae.	desirous of seeking peace.
scribendō epistulās	scribendis epistulis	by writing letters.

1. The gerundive is always used to avoid using a direct object with the dative of the gerund, or with a case dependent upon a preposition. 91, note. aptum tegendis corporibus, suited to the defense of the body. ad pācem petendam venerunt, they came to seek peace. Brutus in liberandā patriā est interfectus, Brutus was slain in freeing his country.

2. When the genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, are used in the gerundive construction, the gerundive regularly ends in -di, regardless of the gender and number of the pronoun : nostri servandi causā, for the sake of saving ourselves.

94. Active Periphrastic Conjugation. - This is formed by the future active participle and the auxiliary verb sum. It expresses the idea conveyed by the English phrases "I am about to," "I am going to," "I intend to": amātūrus est, he is about to love.

95. Passive Periphrastic Conjugation. - This is formed by the gerundive and the auxiliary verb sum. It expresses obligation or necessity, and in its literal meaning is passive. The agent is expressed by the dative case. Note the following points:

(a) Since the conjugation is passive, all active English sentences must be recast into the passive voice before they can be literally translated in Latin. Thus: "I must give the signal" (active) = "The signal must be given by me" (passive) = signum mihi est dandum.

(b) Intransitive verbs of this conjugation are always used impersonally in Latin. Thus: "We ought to come" = "It ought to be come by us" = nōbis veniendum.

96. Supine.

(a) 1. The form ending in -um is used chiefly to express purpose after verbs of motion: ad Caesarem grātulātum convenerunt, they came to Caesar to congratulate him.

(b) The form in -ū is used as an ablative of specification with various adjectives: hōc est optimum factū, this is best to do (literally, this is best in respect to doing). mirābile dictū, wonderful to say.

12 LESSON 12 REVIEW AND SIGHT PRACTICE

97. 98.

98. Review the principles of syntax in 58-96.

13 TENSES OF INDICATIVE, SUBJUNCTIVE, AND INFINITIVE. DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. HOW TO EXPRESS "OUGHT," "MUST "

99. 102.

100. a

101. b

102. Present Indicative. - Aside from its regular meanings, the following uses should be noted:

(a) It is used to describe past actions and events which the writer imagines to be now going on before his eyes. It is then called the Historical Present, and is generally translated by a past tense: Caesar Aeduis obsides imperat, Caesar demanded hostages of the Aeduans.

(b) When dum, while, is used with the present tense, the verb is generally translated as if it were imperfect: dum haec geruntur, while these things WERE GOING ON.

(c) In combination with, iam, now; iam diū, now for a long time; iam pridem, now long since, and similar words, the present is used with the force of the English perfect. iam diū cupiō te visere, I have for a long time wished to visit you (i.e. I now wish and have long wished).

103. Imperfect Indicative. - This tense represents the action as taking place in past time.

(a) It sometimes represents an action as customary or repeated: epulābātur mōre Persārum, he USED TO BANQUET in the Persian style.

(b) With iam, iam diū, iam dūdum, etc. [see 102, 2], the imperfect has the force of the English pluperfect : iam diū cupiebam te visere, I had for a long time wished to visit you.

104. Future Indicative. - The Latin uses the future much more exactly than the English. We often use the present tense to refer to future time, the Latin very seldom. Thus: If he comes, I shall see him, si veniet (literally, will come), eum videbō.

105. Perfect Indicative. - Note its two meanings (1) amāvi, I have loved, called the present perfect or perfect definite; (2) amāvi, I loved, called the historical perfect or perfect indefinite.

106. Note these perfects that have a present meaning. Their pluperfect forms have the force of the imperfect: nōvi, I know. memini, I remember. ōdi, I hate. cōnsuevi, I am accustomed.

107. Future Perfect Indicative. - Note again (see 104) how exactly the Latin uses its tenses: When I reach Rome, I will write, Rōmam cum venerō (literally, shall have reached), scribam.

108. The tenses of the infinitive denote present, past, or future time not absolutely, but with reference to the time of the verb on which they depend. The significance of the tenses is the same as that of the tenses of the participle. Review 84, with the examples given, very carefully.

109. The following outline shows how the tenses of the infinitive may be formed. Review 85.

INFINITIVES
TENSE	ACTIVE VOICE	PASSIVE VOICE
PRESENT	second one of the principal parts	change final e of present active infinitive to i, except in third conjugation, which changes ere to i
FUTURE	future active participle and esse	supine and iri
PERFECT	perfect active stem + isse	perfect passive participle and esse

1. Deponent verbs substitute the future active for the future passive infinitive. Form all the infinitives of the following verbs: vincō, vincere, vici, victus, conquer; sentiō, sentire, sensi, sensus, perceive; proficiscor, proficisci, profectus, set out.

110. Deliberative Subjunctive. - The subjunctive is used in questions that are asked, not to receive information, but to indicate (1) doubt, indignation, or (2) an impossibility of the thing's being done. The negative is nōn. They are most common in the first person. quid agam, iūdices? what am I to do, judges? quid dicerem? what was I to say ? or what could I say ?

111. English expressions that employ the auxiliary verbs ought or must, such as you ought to go, he must do this, are expressed in Latin in several ways:

(a) The passive periphrastic conjugation. Review 95.

(b) debeō and the infinitive.

(c) oportet (an impersonal verb) with the infinitive, or the subjunctive (without ut) : te oportet virtūs trahat, virtue ought to attract you (literally, it ought (to be) that virtue attract you ); legem brevem esse oportet, a law ought to be brief.

EXAMPLES: id mihi faciendum est I ought to do this; debeo id facere, me oportet id facere I must do this oportet id faciam

112. Compare these two English sentences: "I ought to do this." "I ought to have done this." In changing to past time, the infinitive changes, and not the main verb "ought." This is because the verbs "ought" and "must" are defective in English. In the following Latin examples, note that the main verb changes to a past tense, and not the infinitive: debeo id facere I ought to do this oportet me id facere debui id facere I ought to have done this oportuit me id facere.

14 COMMANDS, EXHORTATIONS, PROHIBITIONS; HOW TO EXPRESS "MAY", "CAN", " MIGHT", ETC.

113. a

114. The present imperative is used to express a direct positive command in the second person. The future tense is used chiefly in legal phrases: dā mihi hōc, give me this.

115. The first and third persons, which are missing in the imperative, are supplied by the subjunctive (negative ne). The tense is usually present. The subjunctive then expresses an exhortation or an entreaty: amemus patriam, let us love our country; secernant se ā bonis, let them separate themselves from the good.

116. A direct command in the second person, when negative, is called a prohibition. They are expressed in Latin as follows :

(a) Nōli (plural nōlite), be unwilling, with the infinitive. This is the common expression: nōli hōc facere, do not do this (literally, be unwilling to do this).

(b) Ne with the second person of the perfect subjunctive, or cave, cave ne, fac ne, take care not, see that not, with the second person of the present or perfect subjunctive. These expressions, however, are less common. CAUTION. - Do not express prohibition by ne or nōn and the imperative.

117. The English auxiliaries, may, might, could, would, should, are not always used with the same force. When used with their full force of possibility, or power, they are expressed by corresponding Latin verbs. Thus, licet, it is permitted, gives the idea of may, might; possum, I am able, the idea of could; volō, I am willing, the idea of would. When these English auxiliaries are less forceful, that is, are not used with their full literal meaning, they are represented in Latin by the subjunctive mood.

118. Potential Subjunctive. - This expresses an action as possible or conditional, not as real. It often represents an action as dependent upon some implied condition. The negative is nōn. This subjunctive is generally represented in English by may, should, would: quispiam quaerat, some one may ask. velim, I should wish, or I should like (more polite than volō, I wish). diceres, you would say, or would have said.

119. When may or might emphasize the idea of permission, use licet. It is used as follows: 1. Followed by subjunctive. 2. Followed by infinitive.

EXAMPLES : licet eum (ei) venire, } he may (i.e. is permitted to) come. licet veniat,

15 CONDITIONS AND WISHES

120. a

121. Conditional sentences are complex sentences consisting of two parts, the condition (or protasis) introd uced by "if," "if not," "unless," and the conclusion (or apodosis). For convenience, they may be arranged in these classes: I. Conditions referring to present or past time. 1. Simple. 2. Contrary to Fact (Non-fact). II. Conditions referring to future time. 1. Vivid Future. 2. Less Vivid Future.

122. Simple. - In this class the condition (or protasis) imply states a present or past supposition of fact, without implying whether or not it is true. The present and past tenses of the indicative are used in both condition and conclusion: si hōc faciunt, bene est, if they do this, it is well. si hōc fecerunt, bene fuit, if they did this, it was well.

123. Contrary-to-fact Conditions. - When the condition states a present or past supposition, implying that the condition is not or was not fulfilled (i.e. is contrary to the actual facts of the case), the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive are used in both condition and conclusion. The imperfect expresses present time, the pluperfect past time: si hōc facerent, bene esset, if they were (now) doing this (implying that they are not), it would be well. si hōc fecissent, bene fuisset, if they had done this, it would have been weil.

(a) Expresions of ability, obligation, or necessity (such as debeō, oportet, decet, possum, the periphrastic conjugation, etc.), when used in the conclusion, are often in the imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect indicative, instead of the subjunctive: si Rōmae privātus esset, tamen is erat deligendus, if he were a private citizen at Rome, yet he ought to be appointed.

124. Vivid Future Condition. - When a supposed future case is stated distinctly and vividly (as in English, "if I shall go," or "if I go"), the future or future-perfect indicative is used in both condition and conclusion: si hōc facient, bene erit, if they do (i.e. will do) this, it will be well. CAUTION. - Remember that the present tense in English often refers to future time. See 104.

125. Less Vivid Future Condition. -- When a supposed future case is stated in a less distinct or vivid form (as in English, "if I should go"), the present (less often the perfect) subjunctive is used in both condition and conclusion : si hōc faciant, bene sit, if they should do this, it would be well. This form of condition may be recognized in English by the auxiliaries should or would, in both parts of the condition.

126. Summary of conditions:

CLASSES OF CONDITIONAL SENTENCES	I. Present or past time
	1. Simple. Present or past tenses of indicative in both parts.
	2. Contrary to fact.
	(1) Present time- imperfect subjunctive in both parts
	(2) Past time -pluperfect subjunctive in both parts.
	II. Future time.
	1. Vivid future. Future or future perfect indicative in both parts
	2. Less vivid future. Present or perfect subjunctive in both parts

127. Condition omitted. The condition (or protasis) is sometimes contained in a participle, or implied from the sense of the sentence. liberātus Rōmam ibit, if he is set free (literally, having been liberated ), he will go to Rome. See potential subjunctive, 118.

128. Wishes may be divided into two classes:

(a) Those that refer to the future as, "may he do this," or "O that he may come."

(b) Those that refer to present or past time, and that wish for something which (it is implied) is not or was not attained. They are sometimes called contrary-to-fact wishes. Thus, "O that this had happened" (implying that it did not happen ), or "would that he were not here" (implying that he is here now).

129. The subjunctive, usually with utinam, is used to express a wish. The negative is ne. The force of the tenses is as follows:

(a) The present tense, often with utinam, refers to future time, and denotes the wish as possible.

(b) The imperfect tense, regularly with utinam, expresses a wish that is contrary to fact in present time.

(c) The pluperfect, regularly with utinam, represents a wish as contrary to fact in past time.

EXAMPLES: 1. utinam hōc faciat, may he do this! (possible). 2. utinam hōc faceret, would that he were doing this! (contrary to fact in present time, implying that he isn't doing this). 3. utinam hōc ne fecisset, would that he had not done this! (contrary to fact in past time).

16 SEQUENCE OF TENSES. INDIRECT QUESTIONS. CONSTRUCTION AFTER VERBS OF FEARING AND VERBS OF DOUBTING

130. 131.

131. When the subjunctive is used in a dependent clause, the choice of the tense to be used depends upon the time of the principal or leading clause. All tenses are divided into two classes: primary (principal) and secondary (historical).

(a) The primary or principal tenses include all forms that express present or future time. They are the present, future, and future-perfect indicative, the present and perfect subjunctive, and the present·and future imperative.

(b) The secondary or historical tenses are those that express past time. They are the imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect indicative, the imperfect and pluperfect subjunctive.

i. The historical present [102, 1] is sometimes considered a primary tense, although more often a secondary.

132. Rule for Sequence of Tenses. - Whenever the subjunctive is used in a subordinate or dependent clause, the tense that should be used is determined by the following rule: A primary tense in the main clause is followed by a primary tense in the dependent clause; a secondary tense is followed by a secondary tense.

133. In applying this rule for the sequence of tenses, the student should notice (1) whether the verb of the main clause is primary or secondary; (2) whether the dependent verb denotes (a) time that is present or future with reference to the time of the main verb (i.e. whether it denotes incomplete action), or (b) time that is past with reference to the main verb (i.e. completed action). 1. If the main verb is primary, the dependent subjunctive must be present tense if the action is incomplete, and perfect if it denotes complete action. 2. If the main verb is a secondary tense, the dependent subjunctive must be imperfect if it denotes incomplete action, and pluperfect if it denotes completed action. Examples of sequence of tenses: 1. videō quid faciat, I see what he is doing. In both these examples the dependent clause expresses incomplete action, because the doing was going on at the same time as the seeing. 2. vidi quid faceret, I saw what he was doing. 3. videō quid fecerit, I see what he did (or has done). Here the dependent clauses denote completed action, because the doing was finished before the seeing began. 4 vidi quid fecisset, I saw what he did (or had done).

OUTLINE FOR USE OF SUBJUNCTIVE TENSES
PRINCIPAL OR MAIN VERB	TENSE USED IN SUBJUNCTIVE
	INCOMPLETE TIME	COMPLETED TIME
Present; Future; Future perfect; Imperative	Present	Perfect
Perfect; Pluperfect; Imperfect	Imperfect	Pluperfect

134. Indirect Questions. - When a question is not asked directly, but depends upon some introductory verb, the subjunctive is used: sciō quis ille sit, I know who he is. (The direct question was, quis ille est? who is he?) Indirect questions may be recognized in English by the fact that some interrogative word follows the main or introductory verb.

135. A clause dependent upon a verb or expression of fearing may be expressed by ut or ne and the subjunctive. Ne is affirmative, and means that; ut is negative, and means that not: timeō ne hōc faciat, I fear that he will do this (or I fear that he is doing this). timebam ut hōc faceret, I feared that he would not do this. 1. ne nōn, that . . . not, is occasionally used instead of ut, and regularly so when the verb of fearing is negative : nōn vereor ne hōc nōn fecerit, I am not afraid that he has not done this.

136. Verbs of doubting, when negative or in the form of a question that implies a negative answer, are followed by quin, that, but that, and the subjunctive: nōn erat dubium quin plūrimum possent, there was no doubt that they had very great power. quis dubitat quin in virtūte divitiae sint? who doubts (implying that no one does) that there are riches in virtue? 1. Dubitō also means hesitate, and is regularly followed by the infinitive: nōn dubitem dicere, etc., I should not hesitate to say, etc.

17 REVIEW AND SIGHT PRACTICE

137. a

138. Review the principles of syntax in 102-136. LESSON 18

18 SUBJUNCTIVE OF PURPOSE AND RESULT. OBJECT CLAUSES

139. a

140. b

141. A purpose clause is one which expresses the end or purpose of the action of a verb. In English, purpose is indicated in a variety of ways. In the sentence, "He came to see me," the purpose clause "to see me" may be expressed "in order that he might see me," or "for the purpose of seeing me," or "in order to see me," etc.

142. In Latin, also, there are many ways of expressing purpose. In previous lessons these have been considered.

(a) The genitive of the gerundive construction followed by causā. See 91, second example, and 93.

(b) The genitive of the gerund followed by causā. See 91, second example.

(c) ad and the accusative of the gerundive construction. See 93, 1, second example.

(d) ad and the accusative of the gerund. See 91, accusative. This construction is not used with transitive verbs. See 93, 1.

(e) Supine in -um after verbs of motion. See 96, 1.

143. A clause of purpose is most commonly expressed by

(a) ut, that, in order that, and ne, in order that not, lest, and the subjunctive: veni ut meum amicum viderem, I came that I might see my friend (or to see my friend ). portās clausit, ne quam oppidāni iniūriam acciperent, he closed the gates, lest the townsmen should receive any injury.

(b) A relative pronoun is used with the subjunctive to express purpose. There must, of course, be an antecedent of the relative, expressed or understood, in the main clause:

i. qui cōgnōscerent misit, he sent men to find out, etc. (literally he sent those who should find out).

ii. quō (the ablative of the relative) is often used with the subjunctive to express purpose when the purpose clause contains a comparative: carinae aliquantō plāniōres quam nostrārum nāvium, quō facilius vada excipere possent, the bottoms of the ships (were) considerably flatter than those of our vessels, so that they might be able to stand the shoals more easily.

CAUTION. - Do not express purpose in Latin by the infinitive. This is used in English, but not in classical Latin.

QUERY. - In how many ways may purpose be expressed in Latin? – six!

144. The student should notice carefully the difference between a purpose and a result clause. A result clause expresses the result or outcome of the action of a verb. Observe the difference as shown in these two examples:

"They shouted so that he might hear." (Purpose.)

"They shouted so that he heard." (Result.)

Some word or phrase like so, such, in such a way, etc., is often used in the sentence before the result clause to lead up to it, and to show that such a clause is to follow.

145. A result clause is expressed in Latin by ut, that, so that, and ut nōn, so that not, and the subjunctive: tanta subitō malacia exstitit ut se movere nōn possent, such a calm suddenly arose that they could not move.

(a) A relative and the subjunctive also often express result: nemō est tam senex qui se annum nōn putet posse vivere, nobody is so old as not to think that he can live a year. Note that a negative purpose clause is introduced by ne, a negative result clause by ut nōn.

146. After many Latin verbs the object clause is expressed by ut or ne and the subjunctive, whereas in English the corresponding construction employs the infinitive: (Latin.) huic persuādet uti ad hostis trānseat (the object of persuādet is the clause uti . . . trānseat). (English.) he persuaded him to go over to the enemy (the object of persuaded is the infinitive clause, to go over to the enemy). Because of this difference in idiom it is necessary to know what Latin verbs are followed by an object clause in the subjunctive.

147. The subjunctive introduced by ut or ne is used as the object of verbs signifying to ask, command, advise, resolve, urge, persuade, permit, strive, decree. monet ut omnis suspiciōnes vitet, he advises (or warns) him to avoid all suspicion. Helvetiis persuāsit ut exirent, he persuaded the Helvetians to march forth. suis imperāvit ne quod omninō telum in hostis reicerent, he ordered his men not to throw back at the enemy any weapon at all. te rogō ut eum iuves, I beg you to aid him.

The following verbs are some of the most common that take this construction: persuādeō, persuade. imperō, mandō, order. rogō, ask. ōrō, beg. postulō, demand. moneō, advise. petō, quaerō, request, entreat. cohortor, hortor, encourage, urge. concedō, permittō, allow. censeō, propose, move. decernō, resolve, decree. operam dō, take pains. negōtium dō, employ, charge. labōrō, contendō, strive.

148. There are many exceptions to the principle stated in 147, of which note the following:

(a) Iubeō, order, and vetō, forbid, are regularly followed by the infinitive: Helvetiōs oppida restituere iussit, he ordered the Helvetians to rebuild their towns.

(b) Cōnor, try, strive, regularly takes the infinitive: si trānsire cōnārentur, if they should try to cross.

(c) The following verbs are followed either by

i. the infinitive

ii. ut and ne and the subjunctive. Yet the infinitive is more common. patior, sinō, allow. cōnstituō, determine. statuō, resolve upon. volō, wish, be willing. nōlō, be unwilling. mālō, prefer. cupiō, desire. studeō, be eager for.

1. They sent a man to see her. (Express in six different ways in Latin.)

19 CONSTRUCTION AFTER VERBS OF HINDERING AND REFUSING. TEMPORAL CLAUSES.

149. a

150. Object clauses dependent upon verbs of hindering, preventing, and refusing are expressed as follows:

(a) By ne or quōminus and the subjunctive, if the main clause is affirmative. Caesar deterrere potest ne māior multitūdō Germānōrum Rhenum trādūcātur, Caesar can prevent a greater multitude of Germans from being led across the Rhine.Prohibeō regularly takes the infinitive. Germānōs trānsire prohibebant, they kept the Germans from crossing.

(b) By quin (less often quōminus) and the subjunctive, if the main clause is negative. neque recūsant quin armis contendant, and they do not refuse to contend in arms. retineri nōn potuerant quin tela conicerent, they could not be restrained from hurling their weapons.

151. The time of the action of a verb may be defined by (1) a noun, or (2) a clause. As, "At six o'clock he went home." "When it was dark he went home." Review 51.

152. Temporal clauses introduced by the following particles take the indicative. The tense is generally perfect or historical, present.

postquam (posteāquam)	after
ut	as, when
ubi	when
ut primum	as soon as
cum primum
simul atque
simul ac
simul

postquam Caesar pervenit, obsides poposcit, after Caesar arrived, he demanded hostages. Pompeius ut equitātum suum pulsum vidit, acie excessit, when Pompey saw his cavalry beaten, he left the army.

153. Temporal clauses introduced by cum, when, while, after, take: 1.

(a) The indicative, if the tense is present, perfect, future, or future-perfect.

(b) The subjunctive, if the tense is imperfect or pluperfect. The imperfect or pluperfect indicative is very rare in classical Latin. cum id nūntiātum esset, mātūrat, when this had been reported, he hastened.

cum Caesar in Galliam venit, when Caesar came into Gaul.

Review 87, 1, 89.

154. antequam and priusquam, before, until, are used as follows :

(a) With the indicative to express an actual fact. The tense is generally perfect, future-perfect, or present.

(b) With the subjunctive when the action is viewed as anticipated. The imperfect and pluperfect are generally used. nec prius respexi quam venimus, and I did not look back until we arrived. priusquam telum adici posset, omnis acies terga vertit, before a spear could be hurled, the whole army fled.

i. Antequam and priusquam are often divided into their two elements, ante . . . quam, prius . . . quam, and the first part put in the main clause, the second in the temporal clause. See first example given above.

ii. Antequam and priusquam mean until after a negative clause. See first example.

155. Dum, quoad, or quam diū, as long as, so long as, take the indicative. For dum, while, see 102, 2. quoad potuit, restitit, he resisted as long as he could.

156. Dum and quoad, until, are used as follows :

(a) With the indicative to denote an actual event. This will be, in general, when the reference is to a past action. In this sense dum is used less often than quoad. nostri nōn finem sequendi fecerunt, quoad equites praecipitis hostis egerunt, our men did not give up the pursuit until the cavalry drove the enemy headlong.

(b) With the subjunctive to denote anticipation or expectancy. This will be, in general, when the "until" clause refers to future time with reference to the main verb: expectās dum dicat, you are waiting until he speaks. dum nāves convenirent, in ancoris expectāvit, he waited at anchor for the ships to assemble (literally, until the ships should assemble).

20 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. SIMPLE SENTENCES

157. 158.

158. The words or thoughts of any person may be quoted either directly or indirectly. A direct quotation (i.e. direct discourse) is one which gives the exact word or thoughts of the original speaker or writer. An indirect quotation (i.e. indirect discourse) is one in which the original words or thoughts are stated in the words of another, and conform to the construction of the sentence in which they stand. The English sentence, I am present, when quoted directly, is stated: he said, "I am present." When quoted indirectly, it assumes this form: he said that he was present or, after a present tense of the verb of saying, he says that he is present. An indirect statement, then, is generally introduced in English by the word "that," although that may be omitted, as, he says (that) he is coming. CAUTION. - The English word "that" should be carefully examined. It may

(a) introduce an object clause, purpose or result clause, being rendered in Latin by Ut ne, quin, quōminus;

(b) be the relative pronoun, as "the book that I saw," and be expressed by the proper form of qui;

(c) be the demonstrative pronoun, as "that book is mine," and be expressed by ille;

(d) be used to introduce a clause in indirect discourse, as "I know that he is here.» In this case there is no corresponding word in Latin.

159. Examine carefully these examples:

DIRECT DISCOURSE	INDIRECT DISCOURSE
I am coming, veniō.	he says that he is coming, dicit se venire.
I came, veni.	he said that he had come, dixit se venisse.

Note (1) that the English expresses the indirect statement by a clause introduced by "that"; (2) that the Latin changes the verb of the direct statement to the infinitive, with its subject in the accusative; (3) that there is no word in Latin to correspond to the "that " in English. Hence never write dicō ut, etc. I say that, etc.

160. Rule for Main Verbs in Indirect Discourse. - In changing from direct to indirect discourse, the main verb of a declaratory sentence becomes infinitive with its subject in the accusative. Verbs and expressions of knowing, thinking, telling, and perceiving are used to introduce a sentence when it is quoted indirectly. Some of the more common verbs are: dicō, say, tell. sciō, know. nūntiō, annonce. cōgnōscō, learn, find out. referō, report. sentiō, perceive. certiōrem faciō, inform. audiō, hear. polliceor, promise. videō, see. negō, say that . . . not. comperiō, find out. nārrō, relate. putō, think., respondeō, reply. iūdicō, judge. scribō, write. sperō, hope. memini, remember. cōnfidō, trust.

161. Review carefully 108 and 109. The tenses of the infinitive do not follow the tense of the introductory verb. They only denote time relative to that of the main verb. The present infinitive describes an action, as going on at the time of the main verb; the perfect as prior or completed; the future as subsequent. The student will be aided in deciding what tense of the infinitive to use in a given indirect statement, if he will imagine what tense was used in the direct statement. A present indicative in the direct statement becomes present infinitive in the indirect; an imperfect, perfect, or pluperfect indicative become perfect infinitive; a future tense becomes future infinitive, or fore (futūrum esse) ut and the subjunctive. Study carefully these examples :

TENSE	DIRECT DISCOURSE	INDIRECT DISCOURSE
PRESENT	veniō, I am coming.	(Present) videt me venire, he sees that I am coming.
		(Past) vidit me venire, he saw that I was coming.
IMPERFECT	veniebam, I was coming.	(Present) videt me venisse, he sees that I came, or have come.
PERFECT	veni, I have come, or I came.	(Past) vidit me vēnisse, he saw that I came, or had come.
PLUPERF	veneram, I had come.
FUTURE	veniam, I shall come	(Present) videt me ventūrum (esse), or videt fore ut veniam, he sees that I will come.
		(Past) vidit me ventūrum (esse), or vidit fore ut venirem, he saw that I would come.

1. If a verb has no perfect passive participle, its future infinitive must be represented by fore ut and subjunctive. 2. The subject of the infinitive should never be omitted in Latin.

162. When the main verb in the direct discourse is used in any one of the following constructions, it becomes subjunctive in indirect discourse, and not infinitive. (1) A direct question, asked for an answer : (Direct.) cūr in meās possessiōnes venis? why do you come into my domain? (Indirect.) Ariovistus Caesari respondit, cūr in suās possessiōnes veniret? Ariovitus replied to Caesar, why did he come into his domain? (2) Any imperative form : (Direct.) nōli Aeduis bellum inferre, do not make war upon the Aeduans. (Indirect.) postulāvit ne Aeduis bellum inferret, he demanded that he should not make war upon the Aeduans. (Direct.) cum legiōne veni, come with a legion. (Indirect.) scribit Labienō cum legiōne veniat, he writes to Labienus to come (literally, that he should come) with a legion. (3) A subjunctive of exhortation (115), or wish (128, 129), or deliberation (no), remains subjunctive in indirect discourse.

163. If the direct discourse is in the form of a rhetorical question (i.e. one that is asked for effect, and implies its own answer), the main verb becomes infinitive in indirect discourse: (Direct.) num recentium iniūriārum memoriam depōnere possum? can I lay aside the memory of recent wrongs ? (Indirect.) Caesar respondit, num recentium iniūriārum memoriam se depōnere posse? Caesar replied, could he lay aside the memory of recent wrongs? 1. It is often hard to distinguish between a real and rhetorical question. It often depends merely on the writer's point of view.

21 INDIRECT DISCOURSE. COMPLEX SENTENCES

164. 165.

165. A complex sentence is one consisting of a principal clause and one or more dependent clauses; as " if he comes, I shall go" ; "we waited until we saw her" ; "the man whom I saw is a German." The dependent verbs are italicized.

166. When a complex sentence is indirectly quoted, its principal or main verb follows the rules stated in 160, 162, 163. Its dependent verb follows this law: Each dependent verb becomes subjunctive. Its tense depends upon the tense of the introductory verb of saying, thinking, etc„ in accordance with the principle of sequence of tenses (131).

167. Pronouns in Indirect Discourse. - In changing from direct to indirect discourse, pronouns of the first and second persons are generally changed to pronouns of the third person. The reflexive pronouns (65, 1, 2, 66) refer either to the subject of the introductory verb, or to the subject of the verb of their own clause. '

168. The following examples illustrate the changes of a dependent clause:

DIRECT DISCOURSE	INDIRECT DISCOURSE
vir quem vidi meus amicus est,	(Present) dicit virum quem viderit suum amicum esse,
	he says that the man whom he saw is his friend.
	(Past) dixit virum quem vidisset suum amicum esse,
the man whom I saw is my friend.	he said that the man whom he saw (or had seen) was his friend.

169. When conditional sentences are quoted indirectly, the following facts should be noted : (1) The condition (or protasis), being a dependent clause, is always subjunctive. (2) The conclusion (or apodosis), being a main clause, becomes the infinitive, unless it is in the form that would change to the subjunctive (162). (3) The conclusion of a less vivid future condition becomes the future infinitive. Hence it is impossible to distinguish vivid and less vivid future conditions when quoted indirectly. (4) The condition of a contrary-to-fact condition never changes its tense. (5) The conclusion of a contrary-to-fact condition be­ comes, 1. if active, the infinitive form obtained by combining the participle in -ūrus with fuisse. 2. if passive, or without a supine stem, the periphrase futūrum fuisse ut and the imperfect subjunctive.

EXAMPLES OF CONDITIONS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE
KIND OF CONDITION	DIRECT DISCOURSE	INDIRECT DISCOURSE
SIMPLE	si hōc faciunt, bene est, if they do this, it is well.	(Present) dicit, si hōc faciant, bene esse, he says that, if they do this, it is well.
		(Past) dixit, si hōc facerent, bene esse, he said that, if they did this, it was well.
VIVID FUTURE	si hōc facient, bene erit, if they do this, it will be well.	(Present) dicit, si hōc faciant, bene futūrum, he says that, if they do this, it will be well.
		(Past) dixit, si hōc facerent, bene futūrum, he said that, if they did this, it would be well.
LESS VIVID FUTURE	si hōc faciant, bene sit, if they should do this, it would be well.	Latin same as that of vivid future condition.
CONTRARY TO FACT	(Present time)si hōc facerent, bene esset, if they were (now) doing this, it would be well.	dicit (or dixit), si hōc facerent, bene futūrum fuisse (rarely esse), he said (or says) that, if they were doing this, it would be well. (The tense of the verb of saying does not affect the condition.)
	(Past time) si hōc fecissent, bene fuisset, if they had done this, it would have been well.	dicit (or dixit), si hōc fācis·sint, futūrum fuisse ut bene esset, he says (or said) that, if they had done this, it would have been well.

22 CONCESSION. PROVISO. CAUSE. CHARACTERISTIC. REVIEW OF RELATIVE CLAUSES

170. a

171. Clauses of concession, introduced in English by although, are generally expressed in Latin by

(a) Quamquam, although, and the indicative;

(b) Quamvis, cum, although, and the subjunctive;

(c) Etsi, etiamsi, tametsi, even if, with the same construction as si. The indicative is more common.

EXAMPLES: quamquam festinās, nōn est mora longa, although you are in haste, the delay is not long. quamvis sis molestus, numquam te esse cōnfitebor malum, although you may be troublesome, I shall never confess that you are an evil. cum primi ōrdines concidissent, tamen ācerrime reliqui resistebant, although the first ranks had fallen, still the others resisted vigorously.

172. Dum, modo, dummodo, if only, provided that, introducing a proviso, take the subjunctive: ōderint, dum metuant, let them hate, provided (if only) they fear. Review 102, 2, 156.

DIFFERENT USES OF DUM
dum	while	present indicative
	until	(1) Indicative to denote actual event.
		(2) Subjunctive to express anticipation or expectancy.
	provided	subjunctive
	if only

173. A clause that denotes cause may be expressed as follows:

(a) By quod, quia, quoniam, and the indicative, when the reason is that of the writer or speaker, with the subjunctive, when the reason is regarded as that of another. Aedui Caesari grātiās egerunt, quod se periculō liberāvisset, the Aedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from danger. (The subjunctive, liberāvisset, shows that the reason is that of the Aedui, not the writer's reason.) quoniam supplicātiō decreta est, celebrātōte illōs dies, since a thanksgiving has been decreed, celebrate those days. (The reason is that of the writer.)

(b) By cum and the subjunctive: quae cum ita sint, perge, since these things are so, proceed.

(c) Sometimes by the participle. See 87, 3.

(d) By a relative and the subjunctive. ō fortūnāte adulescens, qui tuae virtūtis Homerum praecōnem inveneris, O fortunate youth, since you have found a Homer as the herald of your valor.

174. Relative of Characteristic. - The simplest use of a relative clause is to state a fact about the antecedent, as: puer, quem vidi, adest, the boy, whom I saw, is here. The indicative mood is then used. When, however, the relative clause expresses an essential quality or characteristic of an indefinite antecedent, the subjunctive is used, as nemō est qui dicat, there is nobody who says, etc. The relative clause of characteristic is necessary to complete the meaning of the sentence; therefore, to leave it out would destroy the sentence. A relative with the indicative, however, merely expresses an additional fact about the antecedent; therefore, it may be omitted and a complete statement still remains. Compare the two examples just given. In the first, leave out "whom I saw," and a complete statement "the boy is here" remains. In the second, omit "who says," and the rest of the sentence "there is nobody" seems incomplete, as we naturally expect a clause to fill out the meaning. This test, then, will often help the student to determine whether a given relative clause expresses an essential characteristic: quae civitās est quae nōn everti possit ? what state is there which cannot be overthrown. The relative of characteristic is especially common after such expressions as: sunt qui, there are some who. multi sunt qui, there are many who. nemō est qui, nūllus est qui, there is no one who. quis est qui, who is there who . sōlus est qui, he is the only one who. And others. 1. Dignus, worthy ; indignus, unworthy ; aptus, fit ; idōneus, suitable, are often followed by a relative and the subjunctive. idōneus qui impetret, fit to obtain.

175. Relative clauses are more frequent in Latin than in English. Their various uses are mentioned below:

(a) With the indicative to state a descriptive fact about the antecedent. See 174.

(b) With the subjunctive to express the essential characteristic. See 174.

(c) With the subjunctive to denote purpose. See 143, 1.

(d) With the subjunctive to denote result. See 145, 1.

(e) With the subjunctive to express cause and concession. See 113, 4.

(f) A relative pronoun may be used instead of si, if, to form the protasis of any one of the four classes of conditional sentences. See 126.

(Simple.) quicumque hōc facit, errat, whoever does this makes a mistake. (quicumque = si quis, if any one.)

(Contrary to fact.) quicumque hōc fecisset, errāsset, whoever had done this would have made a mistake.

Such sentences are called conditional relative sentences.

23 REVIEW AND SIGHT PRACTICE

177. Review the grammatical principles of 141-175.

PART III CICERO, FIRST ORATION AGAINST CATILINE

NOTE. The student should not depend on the English-Latin vocabulary for the Latin words. The text upon which each chapter is based should be consulted for the necessary words and phrases.

CHAPTER I
a. quid cōnsili ceperis, quem nostrum ignōrāre arbitrāris?	a. who of us do you think is ignorant of what plan you adopted ?
b. te dūci iam pridem oportebat.	b. long ago you ought to have been led.
c. novis rebus studentem.	c. who desired a revolution.
d. Non deest rei pūblicae cōnsilium.	d. the republic does not lack the advice.

CHAPTER II
a. C. Gracchus, clārissimō patre.	a. Gaius Gracchus, a man of very famous father.
b. num unum diem L. Sāturninum mors remorāta est ?	b. death did not keep Ludus Saturninus waiting for one day, did it?
c. erit verendu m mihi.	c. I shall have to fear.
d. nōndum addūcor ut faciam.	d. I am not yet induced to do.
e. cum iam nemō tam improbus invenīrī poterit, qui non fateātur.	e. when now no one can be found so wicked as not to acknowledge.
f. Quam diu quisquam erit qui audeat.	f. As long as there will be anyone who dares.

CHAPTER III
a. obliviscere caedis atque incenuiōrum.	a. forget (cease to think about) murder and fire.
b. licet recōgnōscās.	b. you may review.
c. ante diem XII Kalendās Novembris.	c. the twelfth day before the Kalends of November (i.e. October 21).
d. nihil cōgitās, quod nōn ego audiam.	d. you plan nothing that I do not hear of.

CHAPTER IV
a. Hōs ego de re pūblicā sententiam rogō.	a. I call upon them to vote on public matters.
b. dixisti paulum tibi esse etiam nunc morae quod ego viverem.	b. you said you were even now delayed a little because I lived.
c. Reperti sunt duo equites Rōmāni qui te istā cūrā liberārent.	c. Two Roman knights were found to free you from that care.
d. sese interfectūrōs esse pollicerentur.	d. promised to kill.
e. salūtātum.	e. in order to pay their respects.

CHAPTER V
a. Quae cum ita sint.	a. Since this is so, (therefore)
b. dum modo inter me atque a te mūrus intersit.	b. if only (provided) wall intervene between you and me.
c. nūllō tumultū concitātō.	c. without arousing any confusion.
d. quod hūius imperi proprium est.	d. which belongs to this power of mine.
e. me imperante.	e. at my command.

CHAPTER VI
a. nemō est qui te nōn ōderit.	a. there is no one who does not hate you
b. ita coniectās ut vitari posse nōn viderentur.	b. so aimed that they seemed impossible to be avoided.
c. Quotiens tibi iam extorta est ista sica de manibus !	c. How often already has that dagger been wrested from your hands!
d. quod eam necesse putās esse defigere.	d. that you think that you must plunge it, etc.

CHAPTER VII
a. Quid, quod ista subsellia vacue facta sunt ?	a. What of the fact that those seats near you were vacated?
b. Si te parentes timerent atque odissent tui aliquo concederes.	b. If your parents feared and hated you, you would retire somewhere.
c. me esse . . . non est ferendum.	c. it is not to be endured that I should be, etc.

CHAPTER VIII
a. ad M. Lepidum.	a. at the house of Manius Lepidus.
b. ut te adservārem rogāsti.	b. you asked me to keep you.
c. faciam ut intellegās.	c. I will make you understand.
d. eosdem facile addūcam ut te prosequantur.	d. I will easily induce these same persons to escort you.

CHAPTER IX
a. Utinam tibi istam mentem di immortāles duint (dent).	a. Would that the immortal gods would give you that purpose.
b. Sed est tanti ut legum poenās pertimescās nōn est postulandum.	b. But it is worth while it is not to be expected that you should fear the punishment of the laws (cf. Ch. VII, c).

CHAPTER X
a. Habes ubi ostentes.	a. You have an opportunity to show (literally you have where you may show)

CHAPTER XI
a. Praeclāram refers grātiam (cf. habere grātiam and agere grātiās).	a. You show a noble gratitude.
b. si quis est metus.	b. if there is any fear.

CHAPTER XII
a. qui hoc idem sentiunt.	a. who hold the same views.
b. optimum factū.	b. the best thing to do.
c. Hōc ūnō interfectō.	c. if this one man is killed.
d. si in hunc animadvertissem.	d. if I had punished him.

CHAPTER XIII
a. nesciō quō pactō.	a. somehow or other (literally, by some means).
b. Quā re secedant improbi.	b. Therefore let the rascals depart.

GRAMMATICAL INDEX

(FIGURES REFER TO SECTIONS)

Ablative, syntax of, 39-52;

abl. of accompaniment, 46; of cause, 43; of degree of difference, 48; of manner, 45; of material, 40; of means, 43; of source, 40; of price, 50; of quality, 49; of separation, 39; of specification, 47; of time, 51; with a comparative, 42; with deponents (utor, fruor, etc.), 44; with ex or de for partitive gen., 23; abl. absolute, 89. ac (atque), with idem, 76. Accompaniement, expressed by cum and abl., 46.

Accusative, syntax of, 12-18;

cognate acc., 13; double acc., 14-15; of duration of time, 16; of exclamation, 18; of extent of space, 16; of place to which, 17; with verbs of aiding, pleasing, etc., 32, l; with verbs of pitying, repenting, etc., 27; with verbs of remembering, etc., 25, 2.

Accusing, etc., verbs of, with gen. 26.

Action, nouns of, 21. adiuvō, 32, 1.

Adjectives, agreement of attributive adjs., 5 ; agreement of predicate adj., 6 ; agreement with natural gender, 7; gen. with adjs., 24.

Agent, expressed by dat., 95; by ā, ab with abl., 41.

Agreement, of adjs., 5-7; of appositives,. 1-2; of predicate nouns, 4; of collective noun and a verb, 9; of subject and predicate, 10; of verb, 8. aliquis, 72. alius, distinction from alter, 73.

Although, 171, 87, 6. an, in direct questions, 80.

Answers, 81.

Antecedent, incorporation of, 71, 5; agreement of relative with, 71, 1, 2; sometimes omitted, 71, 3. antequam, 154.

Apposition, 1-3; appositive: English clause of time, etc., 3.

As soon as, 152.

Before, with clauses, 54. causā, with gen. of gerund, etc., 142, 2.

Causal clauses, with cum, 173, 2; With quod, quia, quoniam, 173, 1; expressed by participle, 87, 3.

Causal relatives, 173, 4.

Cause, abl. of, 22.

Characteristic, gen. of, 22 ; abl. of, 49; relative clauses of, 174.

Collective noun with singular verb, 9.

Comparative, with or without quam, 42.

Concession, expressed by participle, 87, 6.

Concessive clauses, 171.

Conditions, 121-127; contrary to fact, 123; apodosis in indicative, 123; future ("less vivid"), 125; future ("more vivid"), 124 ; simple (where apodosis states a fact), 122; in ind. disc„ 169; expressed by participle, 87, 2.

Conjunctions, list of, and uses, 82. cum, causal, 173, 2; concessive, 171 2; temporal, 153; clauses with = English perf. participle, 85, 2; = English present passive participle, 85, 3. cum primum = as soon as, 152. cupiō, constr. with, 148, 3.

Dative, syntax of, 31-37; reference, 36; of agent, 95; of indirect subject, 31; of interest, 36; of possessor, 34; of purpose or end, 37; with verbs compounded with prepositions (ad, ante, etc.), 32; with adjectives, 35; retained with passive of intransitives, 32, 2. debeō, past tenses with pres. inf., 112.

Declaratory sentences in incl. disc., 160.

Degree of difference, abl. of, 48.

Deliberative subjunctive, 110.

Demonstrative pronouns, 58-61.

Deponents, with abl. 44; participles of, 85, 1.

Descriptive genitive, 22. Direct reflexive, 65, I.

Discourse, indirect. See discourse Indirect hic, 59

Disjunctive questions. See Double questions. domus, constr., 17, l, 3

Double dative, 37.

Double questions, 80.

Doubting, verbs of, constr., 36.

dum, in proviso, 172; representing present passive participle, 85, 3; until, 156; = while, 102, 2. dum modo, in proviso, 172.

Duration of time, acc. of,I6. etsi = even if, 171, 3.

Exclamation, in the acc., 18.

Extent of space, acc. of, 16,

Fearing, verbs of, constr., 135.

Feeling, nouns of, 21.

For, with temporal expressions, 16.

Forgetting, verbs of constr. with, 25.

Future time, in the subjunctive, 94.

Genitive, syntax of, 20-29; with adjectives, 24; with nouns of action or feeling, 21; of charge, 26; of indefinite value, 29; objective, 21, 2; partitive, 23; with verbs of accusing, 26; with impersonal verbs, 27; with interest, etc., 28; with verbs of remembering, etc., 25.

Gerund and gerundive, syntax of, 91- 95; gerund and gerundive distinguishecl, 91, 92; cases of gerund, 91; gerundive used instead of gerund, 93 ; gerundive denoting necessity or obligation, 95; gerundive of intransitive verbs used impersonally, 95, 2 ; gerundive with mei, tui, sui, etc., 93, 2.

Hindering, verbs of, constr., 150.

Historical present, 102, 1.

Historical tenses, 131, 2.

Hortatory subjunctive, 115 ; in ind. disc., 162, 3.

iam, iam diū, etc. with pres. and imp. tenses, 102, 3, 101, 2.

idem, 76.

ille, 61.

Imperative, 114; in ind. disc., 162, 2.

Impersonal verbs with gen., 27.

Indefinite pronouns, 72.

Indicative mode, tenses of, 102-106; conditions contrary to fact, 123, 1.

Indirect discourse, 158-169; tenses of infin. in, 161; tenses of subjunctive in, 166; conditions in, 169; hortatory subjunctive in, 162, 3; imperative in, 162, 2; questions in, 134; wishes in, 162, 3.

Indirect questions, 134. Indirect reflexive, 65, 2.

Infinitive, formation of, 109; as object, 148; in ind. disc., 16o; tenses of, 161.

Instrument. See Means.

inter nōs, se, etc., 68.

Interest, expressed by dat., 36. interest, const. with, 28.

Interrogative pronouns, 75, 79.

Intransitive verbs, with dat., 32; used impersonally in the passive, 32, 2. ipse, 74. is, 63.

Islands, names of small, in constr. of place, 17. iste, 6o. iubeō, with acc., 32, l ; with infin.,148, 1.

licet, 119.

Manner, abl. of, 45; expressed by participle, 87, 4.

Material, abl. of, with ex, 40.

Means, abl. of, 43; means and agent distinguished, 43, 1; expressed by participle, 87, 5.

Measure of difference. See Degree.

miseror, constr. with, n. I.

modo, in proviso, 172.

nātus, with abl. of origin or source, 40.

ne, with verbs of fearing, 135 ; in object clauses, 147 ; with verbs of hindering, 150.

-ne . . . an, in double questions, So.

Necessity, expressed by the gerundive, 95.

Negative command. See Prohibition.

Negatives, with connectives, 82, 7.

No, 81.

nōn dubitō == not to hesitate, 136, 1.

nōnne, in questions, 78, z.

nostrūm and vestrūm, .

as partitive gen., 64, 1.

num, in indirect questions, 78, 3.

Object clauses, 146.

Objective genitive, 21, 2.

Obligation, expressed by gerundive, 95

omnis, contrasted with quisque, 72, 2.

Origin or source, abl. of, 40.

Participles, formation of, 85; English present = Latin perf. of some deponent verbs, 85, 4; expresses time, cause, manner, etc., 87; perf. active, how represented in Latin, 85, 2; present passive, how represented in Latin, 85, 3

Partitive genitive, 23; substitutes for, 23, 1.

Passive, of intransitive verbs, 32, 2.

Periphrastic conjugation, 94, 95

Personal pronouns, 64.

Pity, verbs of, constr. 27.

Polite subjunctive, 118.

Possessive pronouns, 67, 69.

Possessor, dat. of, 34.

postquam, posteāquam, constr. with, 152.

"Potential " subjunctive, 118.

Predicate nouns, 4.

Prepositions, in composition with verbs, 33.

Present, historical, 102, 1; sequence with, 131, 2 (a).

Price, abl. of, 50.

Primary tenses. See Principal Tenses.

Principal tenses, 131.

priusquam, 154.

Prohibition, 116.

Pronouns, syntax, etc„ 58-76.

Provided that (proviso), 172.

Purpose, clauses of, 141-143.

Quality, gen. of, 22; a,bl. of, 49. quam, in comparisons, 42. quamquam, 171. quamvis, 171.

Questions, direct, 78, 79; double or disjunctive, So; indirect, 134; of doubt, indignation, etc. 110; rhetorical, 163. qui, preceded by is, 63, 1 ; in result clauses, 145, 1; in purpose clauses, 143, 1.

quia, 173, 1.

quidam, 72;

quidam ex instead of gen. of whole, 23, 1.

quilibet, 72.

quin, with verbs of hindering, 150, 2; with verbs of doubting, 136.

quis (indefinite), 72.

quisquam, 72.

quisque, distinguished from omnis, 72, 2; with a superlative, 72, 3.

quivis, 72.

quō, in purpose clauses, 143, 2.

quoad = until, 156.

quod (causal), 173, 1.

quōminus, with verbs of hindering, 150.

quoniam, 173, 1.

Reciprocals, 68.

refert = it concerns, 28.

Reflexive pronouns, 65, 66.

Relative clauses, in general, 71, 175; 143, 1; of result, 145, 1. characteristic, 174; of cause and concession, 173, 4; of purpose,

Remembering, verbs of, constr. with, 25

Result, clauses of, 144, 145.

rūs, constr. 17, 1. se, 66, 69.

Secondary tenses. See Historical tenses.

Separation, abl. of, 39.

Sequence of tenses, 131, 132.

simul atque (āc) = as soon as, 152.

Specification, abl. of, 47.

Subjunctive, deliberative, 110; hortatory, 115; of polite or modest assertion, 118; "potential," 118; in prohibitions, 116, 2; in wishes (optative), 129; of characteristic, 174; in causal clauses, 173, 4; in purpose clauses, 141-143; in result clauses, 145, 1; in object clauses, 146, 147; in temporal clauses, 153, 154, 156; in conditions, 123, 125; in concessive clauses, 171; in clauses of proviso, 172; tenses of, in ind. Disc., 166; future time in, 94

sui, with gerundive, 93, 2,

Supine, syntax of, 96;

Suus 67, 69.

tālis, use of is like, 63, 3.

Temporal clauses, 152-156; with dum, 102, l, 155, 156; with antequam and priusquam, 154.

Tenses, of participle, 84, 85; of indicative, 102-106; historical, defined, 131, 2; of infinitive, 108, 109; of subjunctive in ind. Disc., 166; principal, defined, 131; sequence of, 132.

That, 158, caution.

Time, how long, 16; when or within what period, 51; clauses of, expressed by participle, 87, 1.

Towns, in constructions of place to which, 17.

Until, 154, 2, 156.

ut, in clauses of result, 145; of purpose, 143, = as, when, in temporal clauses, 152; with verbs of fearing, 135; in object clauses, 147. ut primum = as soon as, 152.

ūtor, etc., constr. with, 44.

utrum • • . an, in double questions, 80.

Value, indefinite, gen. of, 29.

Verbs, agreement with subject, 8; with two acc., list, 14, 15; with gen., list, 25, 26; with dat., list, 32, 33; with abl., list, 44; with inf. as object, list, 148, 3; taking object clauses, list, 147; with ind. disc., 160.

Vestrūm. See Nostrūm.

Want, verbs of, with abl., 39·

Wishes, 128, 129; in ind. disc., 162, 3.

Yes, 81, 2.