Usor:Tchougreeff/QUOMODO sive HOW TO/CEB

A NEW LATIN COMPOSITION Charles E. Bennett/LATE GOLDWIN SMITH PROFESSOR OF LATIN IN CORNELL UNIVERSITY This public domain grammar was brought to digital life by: Textkit – Greek and Latin Learning tools Find more grammars at http://www.textkit.com

PREFACE.

PART I of the present work is based exclusively on Caesar. The illustrative examples are drawn directly from Caesar's own writings, either unchanged or with unessential alterations designed to adapt the passage for practical use. The sentences of the Exercises bring into use only Caesar's vocabulary chiefly the common words -and Caesar's constructions. The passages of continued discourse in Part I are devoted partly to a summary of the familiar episodes of the early books of the Gallic War, but deal mainly with the stirring events of the year 54 B.c. as narrated in Book V. Part II is based on Cicero, and follows in detail the plan of Part I. the passages of continuous discourse interspersed among the Exercises deal with Cicero's life up to his consulship.The remainder give a somewhat detailed account of the career of Verres. Part III is intended for the last year of the high school or academy, and consists of some thirty passages of continuous discourse, dealing with the subject-matter of the Fourteen Philippic Orations of Cicero. In compliance with the request of a large number of teachers, I have included material for Oral exercises in connection with Parts I and II of this book. CHARLES E. BENNETT.

ITHACA,. May,.1919,

Part I NEW LATIN COMPOSITION BASED ON CAESAR.

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS. Grammatlcal.references not preceded by any Initial are to the Revised.Edition of the author's Latin Grammar. A.& G. ab!. acc. adv. c. cf. conj. dat. • dep. e.g. f. gen. H. i.e. impers. indecl. intrans. or intr. . lit. m. n. obj. pl. pred • • prep. . semi-dep. subj. • trans. or tr, Allen & Greenough's New Latin Grammar ablative. accusative. adverb. common.(gender). compare. conjunction. dative. deponent. for example. feminine. genitive. Harkness's Complete Latin Grammar. that is. impersonal. indeclinable. intransitive. literally. masculine. neuter. object. plural. predicate. preposition. semi-deponent. subject. transitive.

1 SUBJECT NOMINATIVE. PREDICATE NOUNS. APPOSITIVES. THE VOCATIVE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. 1Subject Nominative.
2. 2Predicate Nouns.
3. 3Appositives.
4. 4The Vocative.

EXAMPLES.

The heavy-faced: figures in parenthesis following the examples correspond to the heavy-face numerals under the Grammatical References. Thus ([Subject-Nominative.]) indicates that the Example illustrates the Subject Nominative; ([Predicate-Nouns.]) Predicate Nouns; etc. The other numerals refer to the Notes on the Examples.

1. Mosa ex monte Vosegō prōfluit,¹ the Meuse flows forth from the Vosges Mountains. ([Subject-Nominative.])

2. Germāni impetūs gladiōrum excēpērunt,¹ the Germans met the attack of the swords. ([Subject-Nominative.])

3. Usipetēs et Tencterī flūmen Rhenum trānsiārunt,¹ the Uspetes and Tencteri crossed the River Rhine. ([Subject-Nominative.])

4. apertō lītore nāvēs cōnstituit,¹ he stationed the ships on an open beach. ([Subject-Nominative.])

5. is² lēgātiōnem ad civitātēs suscepit,¹ he undertook the embassy to the states. ([Subject-Nominative.])

6. ejus belli haec fuit¹ causa, this was the cause of that war.([Subject-Nominative.])

7. extremum oppidum Allobrogum est¹ Genava the outermost town of the Allobroges is Geneva.([Predicate-Nouns.])

8. in vicō qui appellātur¹ Octodūrus, in the village which is called Octodurus. ([Predicate-Nouns.])

9. vir fortissimus, Pisō Aquitānus, a very gallant man, Piso, an Aquitanian. ([Appositives.])

10. duae fuērunt Ariovisti uxōres, ūna³ Sueba, altera³ Nōrica there were two wives of Ariovistus, the one a Suebian woman, the other Noric. ([Appositives.])

11. desilite, commilitōnes^1,4 jump down, comrades! ([The-Vocative.])

Notes on the Examples.

¹The verb in the Latin sentence regularly stands last, but it often precedes a predicate noun or adjective.

²The subject is here emphatic; hence the pronoun is expressed.

³ūna and altera are in partitive apposition with the subject, uxōres.

⁴The Vocative regularly follows one or more words of the sentence.

2 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES AND VERBS.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. 1Attributive and Predicate Adjectives.

2. 2Agreement of Adjectives.*Note that the principles for the agreement of adjectives cover also the use of participles in the compound tenses of the passive, as well as in the periphrastic conjugations.

3. 3Agreement of Verbs.

EXAMPLES.

1. magna alacritās et studium, great eagerness and zeal. ([Agreement-of-Adjectives.])

2. res multae operae ac labōris, a matter of much effort and labor. ([Agreement-of-Adjectives.])

3. G. Volusenus, vir magni cōnsili et virtūtis, Gaius Volusenus, a man of great wisdom and valor. ([Agreement-of-Adjectives.])

4. locus castrōrum erat editus et acclivis, the site of the camp was elevated and sloping. ([Agreement-of-Adjectives.])

5. filius et frātris filius ā Caesare remissi sunt, his son and his brother's son were sent back by Caesar. ([Agreement-of-Verbs.])

6. equitātus nōndum venerat,¹ the cavalry had not yet come. ([Agreement-of-Verbs.])

7. mittitur² ad eōs C. Arpineius et Q. Jūnius, Gaius Arpineius and Quintus Junius were sent to them. ([Agreement-of-Verbs.])

8. quārum rerum magnam partem temporis brevitās et incursus hostium impediebat,³ a great part of which things the shortness of the time and the onrush of the enemy prevented. ([Agreement-of-Verbs.])

9. neque agricultūra neque ūsus belli intermittitur, neither farming nor the practice of war is interrupted. ([Agreement-of-Verbs.])

Notes on the Examples.

¹When the subject is a collective noun, the verb usually stands in the singular.

²The verb here agrees with the nearer subject.

³The two subjects are here felt as constituting one idea; hence the singular verb.

3 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. 1Relative Pronouns.

2. 2Possessive Pronouns.

EXAMPLES.

1. Allobroges, qui trāns Rhodanum vīcōs habent, the Allobroges who have villages across the Rhone. ([Relative-Pronouns.])

2. genus hōc erat pugnae quō se Germāni exercuerant, this was the sort of battle in which the Germans had trained themselves.([Relative-Pronouns.])

3. Casticus regnum occupāvit in civitāte suā quod pater ante habuerat, Casticus seized the royal power in his own state, which his father had held before him. ([Relative-Pronouns.], [Possessive-Pronouns.])

4. Titūrius et Cotta qui in Menapiōrum fines legiōnes dūxerant, Tituirius and Cotta who had led their legions into the territory of the Menapii.([Relative-Pronouns.], [Possessive-Pronouns.])

5. sagittāriōs et funditōres mittebat quōrum magnum numerum habebat, he sent archers and slingers, of whom he had a great number. ([Relative-Pronouns.])

6. ūsus ac disciplina quae ā nōbis acceperant, the experience and discipline which they had received from us. ([Relative-Pronouns.])

7. Vesontiōnem venit, quod est oppidum maximum Sequanōrum, he came to Vesontio, which is the largest town of the Sequani. ([Relative-Pronouns.])

8. Senones quae est civitās firma inter Gallōs, the Senones who are a strong state among the Gauls.([Relative-Pronouns.])

9. auxilium suum pollicentur, they promise their aid. ([Possessive-Pronouns.])

10. vestrae salūtis causā suum periculum neglexerunt for the sake of your safety they made light of their own danger. ([Possessive-Pronouns.])

4 THE ACCUSATIVE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES. (ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECT OBJECT)

1. Simple Uses.

2. With Compound Verbs.

3. Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives used as Accusative of Result Produced.

4. Two Accusatives - Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.

5. Adjective as Predicate Accusative.

6. Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.

EXAMPLES.

1. post eās legiōnes impedūnenta collocāverat, behind these legions he had placed the baggage.(1)

2. milites nostri Atrebātes in flūmen compulerunt, our soldiers drove the Atrebates into the river.(l)

3. Caesar in Rhenō pontem fācit, Caesar built a bridge over the Rhine. (1)

4. Remōs reliquōs que Belgās adiit, he visited the Remi and the rest of the Belgae. (2)

5. complūres equites hunc ūnum peditem circumsistebant, several horsemen were surrounding this onefoot-soldier. (2)

6. hōrum auctōritās apud plebem plūrimum l valēbat, the influence of these was very powerful with the common people. (3)

7. Sequani nihil 2 responderunt, the Sequani made no answer. (3)

8. pauca 3 responderunt, they replied briefly. (3)

9. summō magistratui praeerat, quem vergobretum appellant, he was in charge of the highest office (the man) whom they called 'vergobret'. (4)

10. hōc cōnsilium hostes alacriōres ad pugnam effecerat, this plan had made the enemy more eager for battle.(5)

11. amicus ab senātū nostrō appellātus erat, he had been called friend by our Senate.(6)

Notes on the Examples.

1. plūrimum valēbat: lit. availed very much,· Accusative of Result Produced.

2. nihil respondērunt: lit. replied nothing.

3. pauca respondērunt: lit. replied a few things.

5 THE ACCUSATIVE (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Two Accusatives, - Person Affected and Result Produced.

2. Passive Construction of these Verbs.

3. Two Accusatives with Compound Verbs.

4. Accusative of Time and Space.

5. Accusative of Limit of Motion.

6. Accusative as Subject of Infinitive.

7. Other Accusative Uses.

EXAMPLES.

1. interim cottidie Caesar Haeduōs frūmentum flāgitāre, meanwhile Gaesar daily demanded the grain of the Haedui. (l)

2. milites nāvibus flūmen trānsportat, he sets his troops across the river by boats. (3)

3. Belgae sunt Rhenum trāducti, the Belgians were led across the Rhine. (3)

4. ab Suebis complūres annōs bellō premebantur, for very many years they were harried in war by the Suebi. (4)

5. Caesar biduum in his locis morātur, Caesar carried two days in these places. (4)

6. erant duae fossae quindecim pedes lātae, there were two ditches, fifteen feet broad.(4)

7. hic locus ab hoste sescentos passūs aberat, this place was six hundred paces distant from the enemy. (4)

8. domōs redeunt, they return to their homes. (5)

9. in Galliam ulteriōrem contendit et ad Genavam pervānit, he hastened to Gaul and arrived in the vicinity of Geneva. (5)

10. Bibracte ire contendit, he hastened to go to Bibracte.(5)

11. legātōs reverti jussit, he ordered the envoys to return. (6)

12. maximam partem lacte vivunt, they subsist for the most part on milk.(7)

Remarks.

1. Verbs of demanding more commonly take ā with the ablative, instead of the accusative of the person. This is regularly true of petō, as tribūnātum ā Caesare petivi, I asked a tribuneship of Caesar.

2. To denote duration of time for a small number of days or years, it is customary to use biduum, triduum, quadriduum, two days, three days, four days, and biennium, triennium, quadriennium, two years, three years, four years.

6 THE DATIVE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES (DATIVE OF INDIRECT OBJECT)

1. Indirect Object in Connection with a Direct Object after Transitive Verbs.

2. Indirect Object with Intransitive Verbs.

3. Indirect Object with Compound Verbs.

EXAMPLES.

1. ūnam legiōnem C. Fabiō dedit, he gave one legion to Gaius Fabius.(1)

2. id Caesari nūntiātum est, that was reported to Caesar. (1)

3. Haeduōrum civitāti Caesar indulserat, Caesar had favored the state of the Haedui. (2)

4. neque mulieribus neque pueris pepercit, he spared neither women nor children. (2)

5. Treviri ejus imperiō nōn pārebant, the Treviri did not obey his order. (2)

6. aciem suam carris circumdederunt, they placed their Une of battle around the wagons. (3)

7. minus facile fiuitimis bellum inferre poterant, they were less easily able to wage war against their neighbors. (3)

8. ei mūnitiōni quam lecerat T. Labienum praefecit, he placed Titus Labienus in charge of that fortification which he had made. (3)

9. Brūtus huic classi praeerat, Brutus was in charge of this fleet. (3)

7 THE DATIVE (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Dative of Agency.

2. Dative of Possession.

3. Dative of Purpose or Tendency.

4. Dative with Adjectives.

EXAMPLES.

1. omnes cruciātūs Sequanis perferendi sunt, all tortures must be endured by the Sequani. (1)

2. Caesari omnia ūnō tempore agenda erant, all things had to be done by Caesar at one time. (1)

3. praeter agri solum nōbis nihil est, except the soil of the field, we have nothing, lit. nothing is to us.(2)

4. mihi erit perpetua amicitia tecum, I shall have everlasting friendship with you. (2)

5. dies colloquiō dictus est, a day was set for a conference. (3)

6. Germāni auxiliō ā Belgis arcessiti sunt the Germans were summoned by the Belgians for aid. (3)

7. ūna res nostris magnō ūsui erat, one thing was of great advantage to our men, lit. to our men for great advantage. (3)

8. quinque cohortes castris praesidiō reliquit, he left five cohorts as a guard for the camp.(3)

9. proximi sunt Germānis, they are next to the Germans. (4)

10. maxime plebi acceptus erat, he was especially acceptable to the common people. (4)

Remarks.

1. Note the special neuter impersonal use of the second periphrastic conjugation in connection with the Dative of Agency, e.g. nōbis nōn exspectandum est, we must not wait, lit. it must not be waited by us; nōbis resistendum est, we must resist.

2. The chief verbs, besides sum, that take a Dative of Purpose or Tendency are: relinquō, deligō, dfoō, mittō, veniō.

3. Among the commoner Datives of Purpose or Tendency are: auxiliō, ūsui, impedimentō, praesidiō, subsidiō.

8 THE GENITIVE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Genitive of Origin.

2. Genitive of Possession.

3. Subjective Genitive.

4. Objective Genitive.

5. Genitive of the Whole (“Partitive Genitive”).

6. Genitive of Quality.

EXAMPLES.

1. filius Galbae regis, the son of King Galba.(1)

2. Haeduōrum fines, the territory of the Haeduans. (2)

3. signa decimae legiōnis, the standards of the tenth legion. (2)

4. Gallia est Ariovisti, Gaul belongs to Ariovistus, lit. is of Ariovistus. (2)

5. imperātōris est hōc facere, it is the function of the commander to do this, lit. is of the commander. (2)

6. fuga tōtius exercitūs, the flight of the entire army. (3)

7. eōrum clāmor fremitusque, their crying and shouting. (3)

8. rēgni cupiditāte inductus, impelled by a desire of regal power. (4)

9. domum reditiōnis spes, the hope of returning home. (4)

10. Orgetorigis filia atque ūnus e filiis, the daughter of Orgetorig and one of his sons. (l and 5)

11. quinque milia passuum, five miles, lit. five thousands of paces (5)

12. castris satis praesidi reliquit, he left sufficient guard for the camp, lit. sufficient of guard. (5)

13. quantum auctōritātis? quantum temporis? how much influence? how much time? (5)

14. vir magnae auctōritātis, a man of great influence (6)

15. cōnsilia ejus modi, designs of that sort. (6)

16. mūrus in altitūdinem sedecim pedum, a wall sixteen feet high lit. of sixteen feet into height. (6)

17. auxili causā, for the sake of assistance. (2)

Remark

Causā is much commoner than grātiā in the sense: on account of; for·the sake of.

9 THE GENITIVE (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Genitive with Adjectives

2. Genitive with memini, reminiscor, obliviscor.

3. Genitive with Verbs of Judicial Action.

4. Genitive with Impersonal Verbs.

5. Genitive with interest.

EXAMPLES.

1. Dumnorix erat cupidus rerum novārum, Dumnorix was desirous of a revolution, lit. of new things. (1)

2. agri erant plenissimi frūmenti, the fields were very full of grain. (1)

3. reminisceretur pristinae virtūtis Helvetiōrum, let him remember the pristine valor of the Helvetii. (2)

4. veteris contumelia.e nōn obliviscitur, he does not forget the old insult. (2)

5. Vercingetorix prōditiōnis insimulātus est, Vercingetorix was accused of treason. (3)

6. summae iniquitātis condemnātur, he is convicted of the greatest injustice.(3)

7. saepe cōnsilia ineunt, quōrum eōs paenitet, they often initiate plans which they repent of, lit. of which it repents them. (4)

8. hōc commūnis salūtis interest, this concerns the common safety. (5)

10 THE ABLATIVE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Ablative of Separation.

2. Ablative of Source.

3. Ablative of Agent.

4. Ablative of Comparison.

5. Ablative of Means.

EXAMPLES.

1. Caesar Ubiōs obsidiōne liberāvit, Caesar freed the Ubii from oppression. (1)

2. mūrus defensōribus nūdātus, a wall stripped of its defenders. (1)

3. Caesar proeliō abstinābat, Caesar refrained from battle. (1)

4. principes. Britanniae. frūmentō nostrōs prohibebant, the chieftains of Britain kept our men from grain. (1)

5. ex castris discedere coeperunt, they began to withdraw from camp. (1)

6. vir fortissimus amplissimō genere nātus, a very gallant man born of a very noble family. (2)

7. locō nātus.honestō, born in an (lit. from an) honorable station.(2)

8. Belgae erant orti ab Germānis, the Belgae were descended from the Germans. (2)

9. haec ā Caesare geruntur, these things were done by Caesar. (3)

10. de his rebus per 1 nūntiōs certior factus est, he was informed of these things through messengers.

11. hi sunt ceteris hūmāniōres, these are more civilized than the rest. (4)

12. nōn amplius octingentōs equites habuerunt, they did not have more than eight hundred cavalry. (4)

13. magnō dolōre afficiebantur, they were afflicted with great distress. (5)

14. eōs frūmentō jūvit, he assisted them with grain. (5)

Note on the Examples.

1. When a person is viewed not as an independent agent, but rather as one through whose instrumentality something is done, this relation is expressed by per with the accusative.

11 THE ABLATIVE (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Ablative with the Deponents, utor, fruor, etc.

2. Ablative with fretus.

3. Ablative in Special Phrases.

4. Ablative with Verbs of Filling and Adjectives of Plenty.

5. Ablative of way by which.

6. Ablative of Cause.

EXAMPLES.

1. Germāni jūmentis importātis nōn ūtuntur, the Germans do not use imported horses.(1)

2. ūsi sunt eōdem duce,1 they used the same man as leader.(1)

3. hi omnibus.commodis fruuntur, these enjoy all advantages (1)

4. eōdem ille mūnere fungebātur, he performed the same duty (1)

5. magno pecoris numerō potitur, he secures possession of a great quantity of cattle.(1)

6. tuā amicitiā fretus sum, I rely on your friendship. (2)

7. castris sā tenuit, he kept himself in camp. (3)

8. proeliō nostros lacessere coeperunt, they began to provoke our men to battle or offer battle to our men, lit. harass by battle.(3)

9. equestri proeliō cottidie contendit, he contended daily in a cavalry battle. (3)

10. tōtum montem hominibus compleri jussit, he ordered the whole mountain to be covered with men.(4)

11. frūmentum flūmine Arari nāvibus subvexerat, he brought up the grain in boats by way of the Arar· River.(5)

12. levitāte animi novis imperiis student, on account of their fickleness of disposition they desire a change of control. (6)

13. rei frūmentāriae jussū Caesaris praeerat, by Caesar's order he was in charge of the grain supply.(6)

Note on the Examples.

1. Note that ūtor may take a second ablative in predicate relation to the first. The predicate ablative may be either a noun or an adjective.

12 THE ABLATIVE (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Ablative of Manner.

2. Ablative of Attendant Circumstance.

3. Ablative of Accompaniment.

4. Ablative of Degree of Difference.

5. Ablative of Quality.

EXAMPLES.

1. magnā fidūciā ad nostrās nāves prōcedunt, they advance with great confidence to our ships. (1)

2. mōribus suis Orgetorigem ex vinculis causam dicere coegārunt, according to their customs they compelled Orgetorix to plead his cause in chains. (1)

3. eōs longō intervāllō sequebātur, he followed them at a long interval. (2)

4. silentiō egressus est cum tribus legiōnibus, he set out silently with three legions. (3)

5. omnibus cōpiis ad castra Caesaris contenderunt, with all their forces they hurried to Caesar' s camp. (3)

6. haec gens paucis ante mensibus ad Caesarem legātōs miserat, this tribe had sent envoys to Caesar a few months before. (4)

7. biduō post, two days afterwards. (4)

8. carinae aliquantō plāniōres, hulls somewhat flatter (4)

9. nōnum bonō animō in populum Rōmanum videbantur, they did not yet seem of good disposition towards the Roman people. (5)

10. Germāni erant ingenti magnitūdine corporum, the Germans were of enormous size of body. (5)

11. vir summā auctōritāte, a man of the highest authority. (5)

Remarks.

1. The Ablative of Manner is best regarded as restricted to abstract words such as celeritās, dignitās, lēnitās, prūdentia, etc.

2. The Ablative of Quality primarily designates qualities which are more or less transitory. The observation sometimes made that the genitive denotes internal qualities, and the ablative external ones, is not sufficiently exact. In the phrase hortātur ut bonō animō sint, he urges them to be of good courage, the quality is internal: yet the genitive could not here be used; for while the quality is internal, it is transitory. The theoretical distinction between the Genitive of Quality and the Ablative of Quality is that the genitive denotes permanent, the ablative transitory, qualities. Yet where ambiguity would not result, the ablative may be used to denote a permanent quality. Thus one may say vir summae virtūtis or summā virtūte, a man of the highest character. In all numerical designations of weight, dimension, etc., the genitive is used.

13 THE ABLATIVE (continued.)

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Ablative of Specification.

2. Ablative Absolute.

3. Ablative of Place Where.

4. Ablative of Place from Which.

EXAMPLES.

1. fāmā nōbiles ertant potentesque bellō, they were eminent in fame and powerful in war.(1)

2. equitātū superior, superior in cavalry. (1)

3. Helvetū reliquōs Gallōs virtūte praecedunt, the Helvetii surpass the other Gauls in valor. (1)

4. M. Messallā, M. Pisōne cōnsulibus, in the consulship of Marcus Messalla and Marcus Piso, lit.Marcus Messalla and Marcus Piso (being) consuls. (2)

5. rē frūmentāriā comparātā equitibusque delectis iter facere coepit, having got ready grain and chosen horsemen, he began to march, lit. grain having been got ready, etc. (2)

6. Germānicō bellō cōnfectō, having completed the German war, or, when the German war had been completed. (2)

7. tōtis castris, in the whole camp; omnibus locis, in all places; in Galliā, in Gaul. (3)

8. multi viri fortes Tolōsā et Narbōne evocāti sunt, many brave men were summoned from Tolosa and Narbo.(4)

9. expellitur ex oppidō Gergoviā, he is driven out of the town Gergovia. (4)

10. ā Gergoviā decessit, he withdrew from the neighborhood of Gergovia. (4)

11. ex aedificiis quae habuerant demigrārunt, they moved out of the houses which they had had.(4)

12. iter ab Arari āvertit, he turned his course away from the Arar. (4)

13. uxōrem domō secum dūxerat, he had taken his wife with him from home. (4)

Remark.

1. Observe that in Latin the Ablative Absolute largely occurs where in English we employ subordinate clauses. Of the various kinds of clauses thus occurring, temporal clauses introduced by when and after are by far the most frequent.

14 THE ABLATIVE (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. The Locative Case.

2. Ablative of Time at Which.

3. Ablative of Time within Which.

4. Roman Dates.

EXAMPLES.

1. reliqui domī remanent, the rest remain at home. (1)

2. hōc proelium Alesiae factum est, this battle took place at Alesia. (l)

3. sex legiōnes Agedinci collocāvit, he stationed six legions at Agedincum. (l)

4. prima lūce Cōnsidius ad eum accurrit, at daybreak Considiua races towards him.(2)

5. hieme nāves aedificāvit, he built ships in the winter. (2)

6. tecum proximis comitūs contrōversiam habuimus, we had a quarrel with you at the last election.(2)

7. eō anno in Galliā nūllum frūmentum erat, in that year there was no wheat in Gaul . (2)

8. eōrum adventū equōs Germānis distribuit, at their arrival he distributed horses to the Germans.(2)

9. bello Cassiānō dux fuerat, he had been leader in the Cassian war.(2)

10. decem diebus omne opus effectum est, within ten days the whole work was finished. (3)

11. Idibus Aprilibus, on the ides of April.(4)

12. is dies erat ante diem quintum Kalendās Apriles, that day was March 28th. (4)

15 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Adjectives used Substantively.

2. Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs.

3. Special Uses of the Comparative and Superlative.

4. Adjectives denoting a Special Part of an Object.

5. Primus = first who; ultimus = last who; etc.

EXAMPLES.

1. omnes conservāvit, he preserved all. (1)

2. omnia perdidimus, we lost all things.¹ (1)

3. bona eōrum diripiunt, they plunder their goods. (1)

4. Caesar nostrōs castris tenuit, Caesar kept our men in camp.(1)

5. tristes terram intuebantur, they gazed sadly at the ground. (2)

6. ejus auctōritās fuit amplissima, his influence was very great. (3)

7. frūmentum angustius prōvenerat, the grain crop had turned out rather small, lit. smaller (than usual). (3)

8. summus mōns, the top of the mountain. (4)

9. ad extrēmās fossās castella cōnstituit, at the ends of the ditches he placed redoubts.(4)

10. hi primi mūrum ascenderunt, these climbed the wall first. (5)

11. quam maximis itineribus, with as hard marches as possible. (3)

Note on the Examples.

¹In other cases than the nominative and accusative this idea is best expressed by means of res, e.g. omnium rerum, of all things; omnibus rebus, by all things. Omnium, omnibus, parvōrum, parvis, and similar forms would be ambiguous in gender.

16 PRONOUNS.

GRAMMATICAL. REFERENCES,

1. Personal Pronouns.

2. Reflexive Pronouns.

3. Reciprocal Pronouns.

4. Hic, Ille, Iste.

5. Is.

6. Idem.

7. Ipse.

EXAMPLES.

1. tantā contemptiōne nostri, with so great scorn for us. (1)

2. omnium vestrum consensū, by the agreement of all of you.(1)

3. sese defendunt, they defend themselves. (2)

4. differunt hae nāttiōnes inter se, these nations differ from each other, lit. between themselves (reciprocal use).(3)

5. petebant uti Caesar sibi¹ potestātem faceret, they begged that Caesar would give them the opportunity.(2)

6. hi rūrsus in armis sunt, illi domi remanent, the latter are in turn under arms, the former remain at home. (4)

7. haec si acerba videntur, multō gravfōra illa sunt, if these last things seem harsh, (yet) those former ones are much worse. (4)

8. ejus belli haec fuit causa, the followinq was the cause of that war. (4)

9. in exercitū Sullae et posteā in M. Crassi fuerat, he had been in the army of Sulla, and afterwards in that of Marcus Crassus.(5)

10. legiōnem neque eam plēnissimam dēspiciēbant, they devised (?) the legion, and that not a very full one. (5)

11. ejus adventū, eōrum adventū; by his arrival, by their arrival.(5)

12. id quod accidit suspicābātur, he was suspecting that which happened. (5)

13. eadem opiniō quam reliquae gentēs habent, the same opinion as the remaining tribes have. (6)

14. ipsō terrōre equōrum ōrdinēs perturbantur, the ranks are thrown into confusion by the very terror inspired by the horses. (7)

15. ipse erat Dumnorix, Dumnorix was the very man. (7)

Note on the Examples.

¹This illustrates the indirect reflexive.

17 PRONOUNS (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Quis (Indefinite).

2. Aliquis.

3. Quidam.

4. Quisquam.

5. Quisque.

6. Alius, Alter.

7. Ceteri.

8. Reliqui.

9. Uterque.

EXAMPLES.

1. si quid animi in nobis est, if there is any courage in us. (1)

2. hostes ubi aliquōs eic nāvi egredientes cōnspexerant, adoriebantur, when the enemy had seen some disembarking, they attacked them.(2)

3. cum quibusdam adulescentibus colloquitur, he converses with certain young men. (3)

4. quidam ex his nocte ad Nerviōs pervenerunt, certain of these came to the Nervii by night. (3)

5. neque vestitūs praeter pellēs habent quicquam, nor do they have any clothing except skins. (4)

6. neque quisquam locō cessit, nor did any one withdraw from his post. (4)

7. sibi quisque cōnsulēbat, each one was looking out for him self. (5)

8. alii vāllum scindere, alii fossās complēre incēpērunt, some began to tear down the rampart, others to fill the trenches. (6)

9. legiōnes aliae aliā in parte hostibus restitērunt, the legions some in one quarter, others in another resisted the enemy. (6)

10. alterius factiōnis principēs erant Haedui, alterius Sequani, of the one faction, the Haedui were leaders, of the other the Sequani. (6)

11. cēterōs amicōs populi Rōmāni defendemus, we shall defend the other friends of the Roman people.(7)

12. reliquum exercitum Sabinō dedit, he gave the rest of the army to Sabinus. (8)

13. suās uterque cōpiās instrūxit, each drew up his forces. (9)

14. utrumque ōrant, they entreat both, or each. (9)

Remark.

1. Note that in Latin the singular of uterque is regularly used where in English we say both, if the reference is to two individuals, as utrumque vidi.When the reference is to two groups the plural is used.

18 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

GRAMMATICAL.REFERENCES.

1. The Present.

2. The Imperfect.

3. The Future.

4. The Perfect.

5. The Pluperfect.

6. The Future Perfect.

EXAMPLES.

1. fere libenter homines id quod volunt crēdunt, men generally believe what they wish. (l)

2. Caesar Haeduis obsides imperat, Caesar demands hostages of the Haeduans. (l)

3. jam rūmōrēs adferēbantur, already rumors were being brought. (2)

4. crēbrās excursiōnēs faciēbant, they kept making frequent sallies. (2)

5. hostēs nostrōs intrā mūnitiōnēs prōgredi prohibēbant, the enemy tried to prevent our men from advancing within the fortifications. (2)

6. sē in currūs recipere cōnsuērunt, they are wont (lit. have accustomed themselves) to return to the chariots. (4)

7. Haeduōs appropinquāre cognōverant, they knew that the Haedui were approaching. (5)

19 PURPOSE CLAUSES.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Purpose Clauses with ut, ne, quo.

2. Relative Clauses of Purpose.

3. Relative Clauses with dignus, indignus, idoneus.

4. Sequence of Tenses.

EXAMPLES.

1. lēgātōs ad Dumnorigem mittunt ut ā Sequanis impetrārent,¹ they sent envoys to Duinnorix in order that they might obtain their request from the Sequani. (1)

2. jubet portās claudi, ne castra nūdentur,² he orders the gates to be closed in order that the camp may not be exposed. (1)

3. portās clausit, ne quam oppidāni injūriam acciperent, he closed the gates that the townspeople might not receive any injury. (1)

4. quō parātiōrēs essent ad insequendum, in order that they might be more prepared for pursuing.(1)

5. equitātum omnem praemittit qui videant,² he sends forward all the cavalry to see.(2)

6. hunc idōneum jūdicāvit quem ad Pompeium mitteret, he judged him suitable to send to Pompey. (3)

Notes on the Examples

¹Note the secondary sequence after the historical present.

²Note the primary sequence after the historical present.

Remark.

Note that the Latin uses ne quis, in order that no one; ne quid, in order that nothing; ne ūllus, ne qui, in order that no; similarly, ne ūsquam, in order that nowhere; ne unquam, in order that never.

20 CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC. CLAUSES OF RESULT.

GRAMMATICAL.REFERENCES.

1. Simple Clauses of Characteristic.

2. Clauses of Characteristic introduced by quin.

3. Clauses of Result introduced by ut and ut nōn. Sequence of Tenses in Result Clauses.

4. Result Clauses introduced by quin.

EXAMPLES.

1. reperti complūres nostri militēs qui in phalangem insilirent, very many of our soldiers were found who leaped into the phalanx. (1)

2. neque adhūc repertus est quisquam qui mortem recūsāret, nor as yet has any one been found who refused death.(1)

3. nūlla fuit civitās quin lēgātōs mitteret, there was no state which did not send envoys. (2)

4. nemō fuit quin vulnerāretur, there was no one who was not wounded. (2)

5. tantus timor omnem exercitum occupāvit, ut omnium mēntes perturbāret, so great fear seized the whole army that it unsettled the minds of all. (3)

6. multis vulneribus cōnfectus est, ut se sustinere nōn posset, he was exhausted by many wounds, so that he could no longer hold out. (3)

7. nēmō est tam fortis quin rei novitāte perturbetur, no one is so steadfast as not to be confused by a strange occurrence, lit. by the strangeness of an occurrence. (4)

21 CAUSAL CLAUSES. TEMPORAL CLAUSES.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Causal Clauses.

2. Temporal Clauses introduced by postquam, ubi etc., denoting a single past act.

3. Clauses introduced by ut, ubi, simul ac, denoting a repeated act.

EXAMPLES.

1. in his locis, quod omnis Gallia ad septentriōnēs vergit, mātūrae sunt hiemes, the winters are early in these places, because all Gaul stretches toward the north. (1)

2. graviter eōs accūsat, quod ab eis nōn sublevētur, he bitterly accuses them because he is not assisted by them. (l)

3. cum sē defendere nōn possent, legātōs ad Caesarem mittunt, since thy could not defend themselves, they sent ambassadors to Caesar.(1)

4. postquam id animadvertit, cōpiās in proximum collem subdūcit, after he noticed that, he withdrew his forces to the nearest hill. (2)

5. id ubi audivit, ad hostēs contendit, when he learned that, he hastened toward the enemy. (2)

6. simul atque sē ex fugā recēpērunt, statim ad Caesarem lēgātōs mittunt, as soon as they recovered from flight, they sent envoys to Caesar. (2)

7. ubi ex litore aliquōs singulāres ex nāvi ēgredientes cōnspexerant, adoriēbantur, whenever they saw any disembarking separately, they attacked them.(3)

Remark.

Observe that where in English we use the pluperfect with after, as soon as, etc., the Latin regularly employs the perfect, not the pluperfect.

22 TEMPORAL CLAUSES (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Cum-Clauses.

2. Antequam and priusquam.

3. Dum, donec, quoad.

EXAMPLES.

1. ad equōs sē celeriter, cum ūsus est, recipiunt, they retreat swiftly to their horses, when there is need. (1)

2. cum Caesar in Galliam venit, duae factiōnes erant, when Gaesar came into Gaul, there were two factions. (1)

3. jam Galli fugere apparābant, cum mātres familiae repente procurrērunt, the Gauls were making ready to flee, when suddenly the matrons rushed forth. (1)

4. cum equitātus noster sē in agrōs ējēcerat, essedāriōs Britanni ex silvis ēmittēbant, whenever our cavalry rushed out into the country. the Britons would send their charioteers out from the woods. (1)

5. cum ad oppidum acessisset castraque ibi pōneret, pueri mulierēsque pācem petiērunt, when he had drawn near to the town and was pitching camp there, the women and children sought peace. (1)

6. nōn prius fugere dēstitērunt quam ad Rhenum pervēnērunt, they did not cease fleeing before they reached the Rhine.(2)

7. legiōnēs omnes in ūnum locum coēgit prius quam de ejus adventū nūntiāri posset, he assembled all his legions in one place before his arrival could be announced. (2)

8. dum haec geruntur, cētēri discessērunt, while these things were being done, the rest departed. (3)

9. exspectāvit Caesar, dum nāvēs convenirent, Caesar waited for the ships to assemble, lit. till the ships should assemble. (3)

23 SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Substantive Clauses developed from the Jussive.

2. Substantive Clauses developed from the Deliberative.

3. Substantive Clauses after verbs of hindering, preventing, etc.

EXAMPLES.

1. postulāvit ut locum colloquiō dēligerent, he demanded that they should choose a place for a conference (i.e. he demanded, let them choose a place). (1)

2. ōrant ut civitāti subveniat, they beg that he will come to the help of their state (i.e. they beg, let him come). (1)

3. militēs cohortātus estnē suae pristinae virtūtis obliviscerentur, he exhorted the soldiers not to forget their former valor (let them not forget). (1)

4. civitāti persuāsit ut dē finibus suis exirent, he persuaded the state to go forth from their territory (let them go forth). (1)

5. huic permisit ut in his locis legiōnem collocāret, he permitted him to station his legion in these districts. (1)

6. nōn dubitant quin dē omnibus obsidibus gravissimum supplicium sūmat, they do not doubt that he will inflict the severest punishment on all the hostages, lit. take punishment from. (2)

7. hi multitūdinem dēterrent nē frūmentum cōnferant, these prevent the people from contributing the grain. (3)

8. Suessiōnes dēterrēre nōn potuerant quin cum his cōnsentirent, they had not been able to prevent the Suessiones from siding with these.(3)

9. eōs deterruit quō minus hostēs insequerentur, he prevented them from pursuing the enemy. (3)

24 SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative.

2. Substantive Clauses of Result.

3. Substantive Clauses introduced by quod.

EXAMPLES.

1. verēbantur nē ad eōs exercitus noster addūcerētur, they feared that our army would be led against them. (1)

2. veritus est ut hostium impetum sustinēre posset, he feared that he would not be able to withstand the onset of the enemy. (l)

3. quae res efficiēbat ut commeātūs sine periculō portāri possent, this circumstance brought it about that supplies could be brought without danger.(2)

4. est enim hōc Gallicae cōnsuētūdinis, ut viātōres invitōs cōn sistere cōgant, for this is (a feature) of the Gallic customs, that they compel travelers to stop against their will. (2)

5. acciderat, ut Galli belli renovandi cōnsilium caperent, it had happened that the Gauls formed the plan of renewing the war. (2)

6. ex eō quod obsides dare intermiserant, from the fact that they had ceased to give hostages. (3)

7. quod castra mōvi, factum est inopiā pābuli, as to the fact that I moved the camp, it was done on account of lack of forage.(3)

25 INDIRECT QUESTIONS.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Simple Questions.

2. Double Questions.

EXAMPLES.

1. haud sciō mirandumne sit, I do not know whether it is to be wondered at. (1)

2. dēmōnstrāvērunt quanta facultās praedae faciendae darētur, they showed what an opportunity of securing plunder was offered. (1)

3. quid fieri velit ostendit, he shows what he wishes to be done. (1)

4. ejus rei quae causa esset, quaesiit, he asked what was the reason of that thing. (1)

5. voluit intellgere utram apud eōs pudor an timor plūs valeret, he wished to know whether honor or fear had the mastery with them. (2)

6. id eāne causā quam pronūntiāverint an perfidiā fēcerint, incertum est, it is uncertain whether they did this for the reason they stated or from treachery. (2)

7. apud Germānōs cōnsuētūdō erat ut mātrēs familiae sortibus dēclārārent utrum proelium committi ex ūsū esset necne, among the Germans it was the custom for the matrons to declare by lots whether it was advantageous for. battle to be begun or not. (2)

8. hanc palūdem si nostri trānsirent, hostēs exspectābant, the enemy were waiting (to see) whether our men would cross this marsh. (1)

Remark.

To denote future time in indirect questions, periphrastic forms are used where ambiguity would otherwise result; as, nōn quaerō quid dictūrus sis, I do not ask what you will say. Nōn quaerō quid dicās, would naturally mean: I do not ask what you are saying.

26 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. First Type. Nothing Implied.

2. Second Type. Should . . . would Type.

3. Third Type. Contrary to Fact.

4. Conditional Clauses of Comparison.

5. Subordinate Adversative Clauses introduced by etsi and cum.

EXAMPLES.

1. si hoc dicis, errās, if you say this, you are mistaken. (1)

2. si hoc dicēbās, errābās, if you were saying this, you were mistaken.(1)

3. si hoc dicēs, errābis, if you say (i.e. shall say) this, you will be mistaken. (1)

4. si hoc dixisti, errāvisti, if you said this, you were mistaken. (1)

5. si hōc dicās, errēs, if you should say this (were you to say this), you would be mistaken. (2)

6. si hōc dicerēs, errāres, if you were saying this, you would be making a mistake. (3)

7. si hoc dixisses, errāvissēs, if you had said this, you would have made a mistake. (3)

8. si quis equitum dēciderat, peditēs circumsistebant, if any one of the horsemen fell, the foot-soldiers gathered around him. (1)

9. Ariovisti absentis crūdēlitātem horrēbant, velut si adesset, they shuddered at the cruelty of Ariovistus at a distance, as though he were at hand. (4)

10. etsi prope exācta aestās erat, in Morinōs exercitum addūxit, although the summer was almost over, he led his army among the Morini. (5)

11. hōs cum Suebi expellere nōn potuissent, tamen vectigāles sibi fēcērunt, though the Suebi had.been unable to drive these out, yet they made them tributary to themselves. (5)

27 INDIRECT DISCOURSE

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

Moods.

1. Declaratory Sentences.

2. Interrogative Sentences.

3. Imperative Sentences.

TENSES.

4. Of the Infinitive.

5. Of the Subjunctive.

EXAMPLES.

1. Ariovistus respondit sese nōn esse ventūrum, Ariovistus replied that he would not come. (Direct: nōn veniam.). (1)

2. referunt, esse silvam infinitā magnitūdine, quae Bacēnis appellātur, they bring back word that there is a forest of limitless extent, which is called Bacenis. (The direct statement here is est silva; the clause quae appellātur is an addition of the writer.) (1)

3. Caesar respondit, eō sibi minus dubitātiōnis dari, quod eās res, quās legāti Helvetii commemorāssent, memoriā tenēret, Caesar answered that less hesitation was afforded him because he remembered those things which the Helvetian ambassadors had stated.(1)

4. Caesari respondit sē prius in Galliam venisse quam populum Rōmānum. Quid sibi vellet? Cūr in suās possessions veniret? he answered Caesar that he had come into Gaul before the Roman people. What did he want? Why did he come into hi .domain? (Direct;. ego prius vēni Quid vis? Cūr venis?). (1 and 2)

5. si veteris contumēliae oblivisci vellet, num etiam recentium injūriārum memoriam sē dēpōnere posse, if he were willing to forget the former indignity, could he also banish the recollection of recent wrongs? (Direct : si velim, num possum ?). (1 and 2)

6. (4)

7. quid metueret, why should he fear? (Direct : quid metuam, Deliberative Subjunctive.) (2)

Remarks.

1. Note that a dependent perfect infinitive is treated as an historical tense, whenever, if resolved into an equivalent indicative, it would be historical.

2. Note that for the sake of vividness a present tense of the direct discourse is not infrequently retained in the indirect after an historical tense. This is called repraesentātiō, 'a bringing back to the present'.

28 THE INFINITIVE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Infinitive without Subject Accusative, used as Subject.

2. Infinitive without Subject Accusative, used as Object.

3. Infinitive with Subject Accusative, used as Subject.

4. Infinitive with Subject Accusative, used as Object.

5. Passive Construction of Verbs which in the Active are followed by the Infinitive with Subject Accusative.

EXAMPLES.

1. necesse est nōbis Gergoviam contendere, it is necessary for us to hasten to Gergovia. (1)

2. oportēbat frūmentum militibus metiri, it was his duty to measure out grain to the soldiers. (1)

3. placuit castra dēfendere, it was resolved (lit. it pleased them) to defend the camp. (1)

4. licet id facere, it is permitted to do that. (1)

5. nēmō prōgredi ausus est, no one dared to advance. (2)

6. dēbētis adventu .nostrum.exspectāre, you ought to await our arrival. (2)

7. agri nostri vāstāri non dēbuērunt, our lands ought not to have been laid waste. (2)

8. Gallia dēbet libera esse, Gaul ought to be free. (2)

9. nōn aequum est Germānōs in Galliam trānsire, it is not right for the Germans to cross over into Gaul. (3)

10. polliciti sunt sē obsidēs datūrōs esse, they promised that they would give hostages. (4)

11. Orgetorigem ex vinculis causam dicere coēgērunt, they compelled Orgetorix to plead his cause in chains. (4)

12. arma trādere jussi sunt, they were ordered to surrender their arms.(5)

13. Suebi centum pāgōs habere dicuntur, the Suebi are said to have one hundred cantons. (5)

29 PARTICIPLES.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Tenses of the Participle.

2. Use of Participles.

EXAMPLES.

1. audiō tē loquentem, I hear you as you speak. (1)

2. audivi tē loquentem, I heard you as you were speaking. (1)

3. audiam tē loquentem, I shall hear you as you speak, i.e. as you shall be speaking. (1)

4. locūtus tacet, he has spoken and is silent, lit. having spoken, he is silent. (1)

5. locūtus tacuit, he had spoken and was silent. (1)

6. locūtus tacebit, he will speak and then be silent.(l)

7. haec flēns ā Caesare petiit, he asked these things of Caesar, weeping.(l and 2)

8. in nostrōs venientēs tela coniciēbant, they hurled their spears against our men as they came an, lit. coming. (1 and 2)

9. rēgni cupiditāte inductus conjūrātiōnem fēcit, impelled by desire of royal power, he made a conspiracy (1 and 2)

10. perfidiam veriti, domum reverterunt, fearing treachery, they returned home. (1 and 2)

11. Ariovistus ferendus nōn vidēbātur, Ariovistus did not seem endurable.(l and 2)

12. non putābat concēdendum esse, he did not think that concession should be made, lit. that it (impers.) ought to be conceded. (2)

13. pontem faciendum cūrat, he had a bridge built, lit. cared for a bridge to be built. (2)

14. hōs Haeduis cūstōdiendōs trādidit, he handed these over to the Haedui to be guarded. (2)

30 THE GERUND; THE GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION; THE SUPINE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. The Gerund.

2. The Gerundive Construction.

3. The Supine.

EXAMPLES.

1. finem ōrandi fēcit, he made an end to entreating. (1)

2. cupidus bellandi, fond of waging war. (1)

3. ea quae ad proficiscendum pertinēbant, those things which had to do with their setting out. (1)

4. reperiēbat etiam in quaerendō Caesar, Caesar also found out upon inquiring. (1)

5. Galli subitō belli renovandi legiōnisque opprimendae cōnsilium cēpērunt, the Gauls suddenly formed the plan of renewing the war and crushing the legion. (2)

6. in spem potiundōrum castrōrum venire, to come into the expectation of getting possession of the camp. (2)

7. parātiōres ad omnia pericula subeunda, better prepared for undergoing all dangers. (2)

8. sui colligendi¹ hostibus facultātem nōn reliquit, he did not leave to the enemy the opportunity of collecting themselves. (2)

9. legatōs ad Caesarem mittunt rogātum auxilium, they sent envoys to Caesar to ask help. (3)

10. horridiōrēs sunt aspectū, they are wilder to look upon. (3)

Note on the Examples.

¹Colligendi agrees merely in form with sui; in sense it is plural.

Part II NEW LATIN COMPOSITION. BASED ON CICERO

31 AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES AND VERBS.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Attributive and Predicate Adjectives.

2. Agreement of Adjectives. Note that the principles for the agreement of adjectives cover also the use of participles in the compound tenses of the passive, as well as in the periphrastic conjugations.

3. Agreement of Verbs.

EXAMPLES.

1. Aristoteles, vir summō ingeniō et scientiā, Aristotle, a man of the greatest endowment and knowledge. (1, 2)

2. stultitia et timiditās fugienda sunt, folly and timidity are to be shunned. (2)

3. honōrēs et victōriae fortuita sunt, honors and victories are accidental. (2)

4. populi prōvinciaeque liberātae sunt, nations and provinces were freed. (2)

5. nōn omnis error stultitia est dicenda, not every mistake is to be called folly. (2)

6. omnes rēs quās mihi aut nātūra aut fortūna dederat, all things which either nature or fortune had given me. (3)

7. tempus et necessitās postulat, the occasion and need demand. (3)

8. tū et ille vēnistis, you and he came. (3)

32 RELATIVE PRONOUNS. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Relative Pronouns.

2. Possessive Pronouns.

EXAMPLES.

1. ego, vehemēns ille cōnsul qui civis in exsilium ēiciō, I, that energetic consul, who drive citizens into exile. (1)

2. agri qui ēmpti sunt, the lands which were bought. (1)

3. artēs quae ad hūmānitātem pertinent, the studies which make for culture. (1)

4. Virtūs et Fidēs quārum Rōmae templa sunt, Virtue and Faith to whom (lit. of whom) there are temples at Rome. (1)

5. incōnstantia et temeritās quae digna nōn sunt deō, fickleness and haste, which are not worthy of a god. (1)

6. qui nātūram secūti sunt, multa laudābilia fēcērunt, those who have followed nature have done many praiseworthy things.(1)

7. quā ratiōne factum est, and in this way it happened. (1)

8. haec tecum patria loquitur, your country thus pleads with you, lit. says this. (2)

9. suā manū sororem interfiicit, he slew his sister with his own hand.(2)

10. compressi cōnātūs tuos, I checked your attempts. (2)

33 QUESTIONS.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Word Questions.

2. Sentence Questions.

3. Double Questions.

EXAMPLES.

1. quis umquam illud templum aspexit, who ever looked at that temple? (1)

2. quid postulās, what do you demand? (1)

3. ubi eōs convēnit, where did he meet them? (1)

4. quō tandem accūsātor cōnfūgit, whither, pray, did the accuser flee? (1)

5. eundemne tū jūdicem sūmēbās, did you take the same man as judge?(2)

6. num noctū vēnērunt, they didn't come at night, did they? (2)

7. nōnne aliō scelere hōc scelus cumulāsti, did you not augment this crime by another crime?. (2)

8. id utrum libentēs an inviti dabant, did they give that willingly or unwillingly? (3)

9. stultitiamne dīcam an impudentiam singulārem, shall I call it folly or stupendous impudence?(3)

10. cum homine nōbis res est an cum immāni beluā, are we dealing with a man or a wild beast? (3)

11. tabulās habet annōn, has he the tablets, or not? (3)

34 THE ACCUSATIVE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES (ACCUSATIVE OF DIRECT OBJECT)

1. Simple Uses.

2. With Compound Verbs.

3. Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives used as Accusative. of Result Produced.

4. Two Accusatives, - Direct Object and Predicate Accusative

5. Adjective as Predicate Accusative.

6. Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.

EXAMPLES.

1. omnia quae cūrant meminerunt, they remember all things for which they care. (1)

2. foedus ferire, to strike a treaty (1)

3. omnēs terrōrēs subibō, I shall endure all terrors. (2)

4. hortōs Epicūri modo praeteribāmus, we were just now going past the gardens of Epicurus. (2)

5. Xenophōn eadem¹ fere peccat, Xenophon commits almost the same errors. (3)

6. vellem idem² possem glōriāri, would that I could make the same boast. (3)

7. tē fēcit hērēdem, he made you his heir. (4)

8. tū hērēs factus es, you were made heir. (6)

9. Ennius poētas sanctōs appellat, Ennius calls poets sacrea. (5)

10. cupiditās eōs caecōs reddit, greed renders them blind.(5)

11. jūris peritus numerābātur, he was accounted skilled in the law.(6)

Notes on the Examples.

¹eadem peccat : lit. errs (?) the same things, i.e. makes the same errors.

²idem glōriāri, lit. boast the same thing.

35 THE ACCUSATIVE (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Two Accusatives. - Person Affected and Result Produced.

2. Passive Construction of these Verbs.

3. Accusative of Time and Space.

4. Accusative of Limit of Motion.

5. Accusative in Exclamations.

6. Accusative as Subject of Infinitive.

EXAMPLES.

1. ea quae scimus, aliōs docemus, we teach others those things which we know. (1)

2. eōs hōc moneō, I give them this warning, lit. warn them this. (1)

3. id quod monēbātur, that which he was warned of. (2)

4. ea quae rogāti erant, those things which they had been asked. (2)

5. ducenta milia passuum ab urbe aberat, he was two hundred miles away from the city. (3)

6. biennium prōvinciam obtinuit, he held his province two years.(3)

7. multōs annōs regnāvit, he reigned many years. (3)

8. Rōmam rediit, he returned to Rome. (4)

9. domum revertērunt, they returned home. (4)

10. quam ob rem meam domum vēnistis? Why did you come to my house? (4)

11. tibi ad Forum Aurēlium praestōlābantur,.they were waiting for you near Forum Aurelium. (4)

12. ad Tarentum profectus sum, I set out for the neighborhood of Tarentum. (4)

13. sē contulit Tarquiniōs, in urbem flōrentissimam, he betook himself to Tarquinii, a most flourishing city. (4)

14. Catilinam ex urbe ēgredi jussi, I ordered Catiline to go forth from the city. (6)

15. eum prehendi jussimus, we ordered him to be arrested. (6)

16. Ō nōs beātōs! O happy we !.(5)

Remarks.

1. Poscō, postulō, flāgitō, while admitting the construction of two accusatives, more commonly take the accusative of the thing asked and the ablative with ab of the person. Petō regularly takes only the latter construction, as tribūnātum ā Caesare petivi, I asked a tribuneship from Caesar.

2. Rogō, inquire, besides neuter pronouns and adjectives, admits only sententiam as accusative of the thing.

3. Doceō may take an infinitive in place of the accusative of the thing, as tē doceō sentire, I teach you to perceive. The compound ēdoceō is the only verb of teaching that is freely used in the passive.

4. A favorite way of saying so many years old was by means of the phrase annōs nātus, as sexāgintā annōs nātus, sixty years old, lit. born sixty years.

5. To denote duration for a small number of days or years it is customary to use biduum, triduum, quadriduum, two days, three days, four days; and biennium, triennium, quadriennium, two years, three years, four years.

36 THE DATIVE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES. (DATIVE OF lNDIRECT OBJECT.)

1. Indirect Object in Connection with a Direct Object after Transitive Verbs.

2. Indirect Object with Intransitive Verbs.

3. Passive Construction of the Last Class of Verbs.

4. Indirect Object with Compound Verbs.

5. Dative of Reference.

6. Dative of Separation.

EXAMPLES.

1. haec studia adversis rēbus perfugium praebent, these pursuits afford a refuge to adversity. (1)

2. Omnibus aedificiīs pepercit, he spared all the buildings. (2)

3. laudi meae invidērunt, they envied my glory. (2)

4. illa invidia tibi nōn nocuit, that envy did not harin you.

5. per filium ei nocēbātur, he was injured through his son, lit. it was injured to him. (3)

6. nōn mihi persuādetur, I am not persuaded, lit. it is not persuaded to me. (3)

7. mihi invidētur, I am envied; nōbis invidētur, we are envied; tibi invidētur, you are envied; vōbis invidētur, you are envied; ei invidētur, he is envied; eis invidētur, they are envied. (3).

8. Asia ūbertāte agrōrum omnibus terris antecellit, Asia surpasses all countries in the fertility of its lands. (4)

9. amicitiam omnibus rebus hūmānis antepōnimus, we set friendship before all human things. (4)

10. versatur mihl ante oculōs aspectus Cethēgi, the sight of Cethegus hovers bejore my eyes, lit. to me, before the eyes. (5)

11. multum tuis operibus diūturnitās dētrahet, time will take away much from your achievements. (6)

Remarks.

1. Persuādeō and noceo, besides the dative of the person, may take the Accusative of Result Produced. This construction, however, is confined to narrow limits; the chief accusatives so used are hoc, illud, id, quod, quid (interrogative and indefinite), aliquid, nihil. Examples are: hoc Anaximandro nōn persuāsit, he did not persuade Anaxtmander to this ejfect; quid mihi istius inimicitiae nocēbunt, what harm will that fellow's hostility do me?

2. In the passive construction of these verbs the accusative of the thing is retained,.e.g. : hōc ipsis Siculis persuāsum est, the Sicilians themselves were persuaded to this effect.

3. With mittō and scribō one may use either the accusative with ad or the dative, according as the idea of motion is or is not predominant, Thus either mihi or ad mē scripsisti, you wrote to me.

37 THE DATIVE (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Dative of Agency.

2. Dative of Possession.

3. Dative of Purpose.

4. Dative with Adjectives.

EXAMPLES.

1. nōbis crūdēlitātis fāma subeunda est, we must suffer the reputation of being cruel, lit. the reputation must be undergone by us. (1)

2. quō animō tibi hōc ferendum esse putās? with what feeling do you think this should be borne by you? (1)

3. erit verendum mihi, I shall have to fear, lit. it will have to be feared by me (impersonal use). (1)

4. hi tibi ad caedem constitūti sunt, these have been marked for murder by you. (1)

5. necessitūdō quae mihi est cum illo ōrdine, the connection which I have with that class. (2)

6. fōns cui nōmen Arethūsa est, a fountain which has the name "Arethusa" (2)

7. novis nūptiis domum vacuēfēcisti, you cleared your house for a new marriage. (3)

8. illius salūs cūrae plūribus fuit, his safety was an anxiety to many, lit. for anxiety. (3)

9. cui bono est, to whom is it of advantage? lit. for an advantage.(3)

10. hōc mihi dētrimentō est, this is a disadvantage to me. (3)

11. genus litterārum meis studiis aptum, a kind of literature suited to my studies.(4)

12. mentēs improbōrum mihi sunt adversae, the minds of the wicked are hostile to me. (4)

Remarks.

1. Note that for the purpose of avoiding ambiguity the ablative with ā (ab) is used even with the gerundive, as, - hostibus ā nōbis parcendum est, we must spare our enemies.

2. With nōmen est the name is very rarely attracted into the Dative in Cicero's writings, though quite commonly so attracted in later authors. Either construction, therefore, is quite idiomatic.

3. The chief verbs that take a Dative of Purpose besides sum are: relinquō, dēligō, dicō, mittō, veniō, habeō, dūcō.

4. Among the commonest Datives of Purpose used with esse are: auxiliō, cūrae, detrimentō, salūti, impedimentō, odiō, praesidiō.

38 THE GENITIVE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Genitive of Material.

2. Genitive of Possession.

3. Subjective Genitive.

4. Objective Genitive.

5. Genitive of the Whole ('Partitive Genitive').

6. Genitive of Quality.

7. Appositional Genitive.

EXAMPLES.

1. libertātis causa, for the sake of freedom. (2)

2. amicitiae grātiā, for the sake of friendship. (2)

3. stulti est haec sperāre, it is (the part) of a fool to hope this. (2)

4. maeror parentum, the mourning of parents. (3)

5. memoria bene fāctōrum, the recollection of good deeds, lit. of things well done. (4)

6. quinque milia passuum, five miles, lit five thousands. of paces. (5)

7. quis nostrum, who of us? (5)

8. quid est causae, what reason is there ? (5)

9. vir animi magni, a man of high purpose. (6)

10. hūjus modi cōnsilia, plans of this sort. (6)

11. porticus trecentōrum pedum, a portico three hundred feet long, lit. of three hundred feet. (6)

12. quanti aestimābat, tanti vendidit, he sold it for as much as he valued it at. (6)

13. illae omnēs dissensiōnēs erant ejus modi, all those dissensions were of this kind. (6)

14. nōmen pācis dulce est, the name of peace is sweet. (7)

Remarks.

1. Causā is much commoner than grātiā in the sense, on account of, for the sake of.

2. The Objective Genitive occurs most frequently in combination with nouns derived from verbs that govern the accusative; yet by an extension of usage we sometimes find the genitive used with nouns derived from verbs that govern other cases, e.g. cōnsuētūdō hominum, intercourse with men ( cf. cōnsuēscere cum hominibus, to associate with men); excessus vitae, departure from life (cf. excēdere e vitā, to depart from life).

3. Observe that the Genitive of Quality, when applied to persons, is properly used only of permanent characteristics; incidental or transitory qualities cannot be indicated except by the ablative. See Lesson XII, Remark 3.

4. Note that the adjectives most frequently employed in connection with a genitive to denote quality are adjectives of amount ( e.g. magnus, maximus, summus, tantus, and numerals); ejus, 1 hūjus, etc., in combination with modi, also occur frequently.

39 THE GENITIVE (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Genitive with Adjectives.

2. Genitive with memini, reminiscor, obliviscor.

3. Genitive with Verbs of Judicial Action.

4. Genitive with Impersonal Verbs.

5. Genitive with misereor, miseresco.

6. Genitive with interest and refert.

EXAMPLES.

1. semper appetentēs gloriae atque avidi laudis fuistis, you were always desirous of glory and eager for praise. (l)

2. vir bellōrum peritissimus, a man most experienced in wars. (1)

3. omnia plēna lūctūs et maerōris fuērunt, all things were full of mourning and sorrow. (1)

4. fuit hōc quondam proprium populi. Rōmāni, this was formerly characteristic of the Roman people. (1)

5. tui similis, like you. (1)

6. tui memini, I remember you. (2)

7. Cinnam memini, I recall Cinna. (2)

8. Epicūri nōn licet oblivisci, we cannot forget Epicurus. (2)

9. numquam obliviscar noctis illius, I shall never forget that night. (2)

10. multa memini, I remember many things.(2)

11. insimulat Verrem avāntiae et audāciae, he accuses Verres of avarice and insolence.(3)

12. tē avāritiae coarguō, I convict you of greed.(3)

13. mē tui miseret, I pity you.

14. mē stultitiae meae pudet, I am ashamed of my folly. (4)

15. quem nōn paenitēbat hoc facere, who did not repent of doing this. (4)

16. miserēmini ejus, pity him! (5)

17. hōc rei pūblicae interfuit, this concerned the common wealth. (6)

18. meā interest, this concerns me. (6)

Remarks.

1. With memini and obliviscor, personal pronouns regularly stand in the genitive.

2. While memini and obliviscor take either the accusative or the genitive of the thing remembered or forgotten, yet

3. Note that neuter nouns, neuter pronouns (as haec, illa, ea, ista, quae, etc.), and adjectives used substantively (as multa, pauca, omnia) regularly stand in the accusative.

4. Recordor always takes the accusative.

40 THE ABLATIVE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Ablative of Separation.

2. Ablative of Source.

3. Ablative of Agent.

4. Ablative of Comparison.

5. Ablative of Means.

EXAMPLES.

1. liberā rem pūblicam metū, free the commonwealth from fear! (1)

2. nōs omnis vitā privāre cōnāti sunt, they tried to deprive us all of life.(1)

3. carēre aspectū civium māllem, I should prefer to be deprived of the view of my fellow-citizens. (1)

4. mihi nōn campus, nōn cūria umquam vacua mortis periculō fuit, for me not the campus, not the Curia were ever free from the danger of death. (1)

5. hunc et hūjus sociōs ā tuis templis ārcēbis, keep off this man and his associates from your temples! (1)

6. ex urbe depulsus est, he has been driven from the City. (1)

7. parentibus humilibus nāti, born of humble parents. (2)

8. Archiās ibi nātus est locō nōbili, there Archias was born in a noble station (lit. from a noble station). (2)

9. ēdūcuntur ab illis gladii, swords were drawn by them. (3)

10. quid est in homine ratiōne divinius, what is there in man diviner than reason? (4)

11. nihil rārius perfectō ōrātōre invenitur, nothing is more rarely found than a finished orator. (4)

12. Lepidus quō multi fuērunt duces meliōrēs, Lepidus than whom there were many better leaders. (4)

13. cōntiōnibus accommodātior quam jūdiciis, better adapted for public meetings than for courts.(4)

14. tēcum plūs annum vixit, he lived with you more than a year (4)

15. lātius opiniōne malum dissemiuātum est, the evil is more widely diffused than is thought. (4)

16. compressi cōnātūs tuōs amicōrum praesidiō, I thwarted your attempts by the support of my friends.(5)

Remark.

1. Cicero in his Orations (and probably also in his other works) confines the use of the Ablative of Comparison mainly to negative sentences and interrogative sentences implying a negative. No other writer, however, observes so strict a canon, and even in Cicero there is quite a percentage of exceptions. The ablative must be used in case of relative pronouns, i.e. always quō, quibus, - not quam qui. On the other hand, when the comparative is an attributive modifier of a noun in an oblique case, quam is used, and the proper form of the verb esse is expressed, as verba Varrōnis, hominis doctiōris quam fuit Claudius, the words of Varro, a more learned man than Claudius.

41 THE ABLATIVE (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Ablative with the Deponents, ūtor, fruor, etc.

2. Ablative with opus est.

3. Ablative with nitor, innixus, frētus.

4. Ablative with Verbs of Filling and Adjectives of Plenty.

5. Ablative of Way by Which.

6. Ablative of Cause.

EXAMPLES.

1. eā lēnitāte senātus est ūsus, the senate exercised this indulgence. (1)

2. hāc eximiā fortūhā fruitur, he enjoys this noteworthy fortune. (1)

3. celeritāte opus est, there is need of speed. (2)

4. homō nōn grātiā nititur, the man does not depend on influence. (3)

5. frētus hūmānitāte vestrā, relying upon your kindness. (3)

6. deus bonis omnibus explēvit mundum, God has filled the universe with all blessings. (4)

7. forum armātis militibus refertum viderat, he had seen the Forum filled with armed soldiers. (4)

8. Aureliā Viā profectus est, he set out by the Aurelian Way. (5)

9. ārdet dēsideriō, he burns with longing. (6)

10. meō jussū conjūrāti per forum ducti sunt, at my bidding the conspirators were led through the Forum. (6)

Remark.

1. Note that ūtor may take a second ablative (either noun or adjective) in the predicate relation, as quō duce ūtemur, whom shall we employ as leader? eō placidō ūtēris, you will find (lit. use) him tranquil. The second ablative here bears the same relation to the first as a predicate accusative to the direct object.

42 THE ABLATIVE (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Ablative of Manner.

2. Ablative of Attendant Circumstance.

3. Ablative of Accompaniment.

4. Ablative of Degree of Difference.

5. Ablative of Quality.

6. Ablative of Price.

EXAMPLES.

1. aequō animō moriar, I shall die with calm spirit. (1)

2. ēgit causam summā cum gravitāte, he conducted the case with the greatest dignity. (1)

3. vetere prōverbiō, according to the old proverb. (1)

4. hisce ōminibus, Catilina, proficiscere, under these omens, Catiline, depart! (2)

5. lēgāti magnō comitātū pontem ingrediēbantur, the ambassadors with a large retinue were just setting foot on the bridge. (3)

6. cum exercitū accessit, he drew near with his army.(3)

7. ūnō die longiōrem mēnsem faciunt, they make the month one day longer, lit. longer by one day. (4)

8. paucis post diebus, a few days afterwards. (4)

9. post quadriduum, four days afterwards. (4)

10. paucōs ante annōs, a few years before. (4)

11. fuit infirmo corpore, he was of feeble body. (5)

12. hic tribūnus plēbis erat audāciā singulāri, this tribune of the people was of exceptional boldness. (5)

13. haec omnia signa sēstertium sex milibus vēndita sunt, all these statues were sold for six thousand sesterces. (6)

14. hi agri magnō vēneunt, these lands are sold for a high price. (6)

15. multō plūris frūctūs Siciliae venire potuerunt, the harvests of Sicily might have been sold at a much higher price. (6)

Remarks.

1. The Ablative of Manner is best restricted to abstract words, such as celeritās, dignitās, virtūs, prūdentia, etc.

2. The Ablative of Accordance (see Example 3) appears also in such expressions as meā sententiā, suis mōribus, suā sponte, etc.

3. The Ablative of Quality primarily designates qualities which are more or less transitory. The observation sometimes made that the genitive denotes internal qualities, and the ablative external ones, is not sufficiently exact. In the phrase hortātur ut bonō animō sint, he urges them to be of good courage, the quality is internal: yet the genitive could not here be used; for while the quality is internal, it is transitory. The theoretical distinction between the Genitive of Quality and the Ablative of Quality is that the genitive denotes permanent, the ablative transitory, qualities. Yet where ambiguity would not result, the ablative may be used to denote a permanent quality. Thus one may say vir summae virtūtis or summā virtūte, a man of the highest character. In all numerical designations of weight, dimension, etc the genitive is used.

43 THE ABLATIVE (continued ).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Ablative of Specification.

2. Ablative Absolute.

3. Ablative of place Where.

4. Ablative of Place from Which.

EXAMPLES.

1. tū temporibus errāsti, you made a mistake as to the time. (1)

2. impudentiā, quā omnis superābat, shamelessness in which he surpassed all. (1)

3. hominem majōrem nātū nōlebās appellāre, you were unwilling to address an older man, lit. a man greater as to birth. (1)

4. tertiā ferē vigilia exāctā, when the third watch was almost finished. (2)

5. hōc ūnō interfecto, intellegō hanc rei pūblicae pestem paulis per reprimi, if this man alone is put to death, I realize that this disease of the commonwealth can be checked for a little. (2)

6. Lepidō et Tullō cōnsulibus, in the consulship of Lepidus and Tullus. (2)

7. num dubitās id mē imperante facere, do you hesitate to do that at my command? (2)

8. in urbe, in the city. (3)

9. in Graeciā, in Greece. (3)

10. Athenis, at Athens. (3)

11. his locis, in these places. (3)

12. tōtā prōvinciā, in the whole province. (3)

13. ē prōvinciā rediit, he returned from his province. (4)

14. dēcēdēns ex Asiā, departing from Asia. (4)

15. domō fugientes, fleeing from home. (4)

16. Teānum abest ā Lārinō xviii milia passuum,

17. Teanum is eighteen miles distant from Larinum. (4)

18. ā Brundisiō, from the neighborhood of Brundisium. (4)

19. Tusculō, clārissimō ex mūnicipiō, from Tusculum, a famous municipal town. (4)

44 THE ABLATIVE (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. The Locative Case.

2. Ablative of Time at Which

3. Ablative of Time within Which

4. Roman Dates.

EXAMPLES.

1. Rōmae, at Rome. (1)

2. Corinthi, at Corinth. (1)

3. Rhodi, at Rhodes. (1)

4. domi, at home. (1)

5. humi, on the ground. (1)

6. Antiochiae, celebri quondam urbe, at Antioch, once a famous city. (1)

7. Albae, in urbe opportūnā, at Alba, a convenient city. (1)

8. Nōnis Februāriis Rōmae fuit, he was at Rome on the Nones of February. (2, 4)

9. hās ōrātiōnes Lūdis scripsi, I wrote these speeches at the time of the Games. (2)

10. Lūculli adventū cōpiae Mithridātis fuerunt maximae, at the arrival of Lucullus the forces of Mithridates were very great. (2)

11. in bellō, in time of war. (2)

12. primō bellō Pūnicō, in the First Punic War. (2)

13. tribus hōris nūntii venerunt, the messengers came within three hours. (3)

14. Rōscius multis annis Rōmam nōn venit, in many years Roscius did not come to Rome. (3)

15. bis in die, twice a day. (3)

16. quadriduō mors Rōsci Chrysogono nūntiatur, within four days. Roscius's death was reported to Chrysogonus. (3)

17. ante diem octāvum Idūs Novembres, on the 6th of November, lit. on the eighth day before the Ides (strictly the seventy day before the Ides, which were the 13th). (4)

Remarks

1. Observe that words not primarily denoting a period of time, as pāx, peace, bellum, war, commonly require the preposition in to denote time at which, unless they are accompanied by a modifier (adjective, demonstrative, or genitive). Thus, in bellō, in war, but primō bellō Pūnicō, in the First Punic War.

2. In bellō, in war, is to be distinguished in meaning and use from belli. The former phrase is essentially temporal in meaning, - in time of war, while belli is rather local, and means in the field; it occurs almost exclusively in combination with domi, at home, as domi bellique, at home and in the field.

3. To denote time within which, in the course of which, the preposition in is almost invariably employed when the clause contains a distributive numeral (bis, bini; ter, terni) or saepe.

4. Biduō, triduō, quadriduō, and bienniō, trienniō, quadrienniō, are regularly used instead of duōbus diebus, duōbus annis, etc. Compare Lesson VII, Remark 4.

45 SYNTAX OF ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Adjectives used Substantively.

2. Adjectives with the Force of Adverbs.

3. Special Uses of the Comparative and Superlative.

4. Adjectives denoting a Special Part of an Object.

5. Primus = first who; ultimus = last who,· etc.

6. Personal Pronouns.

7. Reflexive Pronouns.

8. Reciprocal.Pronouns.

9. Hic, Die, Iste.

EXAMPLES.

1. sēcēdant improbi, sēcernant sē a bonis. let the bad withdraw, let them separate themselves from the good. (1)

2. omnes stulti, all the foolish. (1)

3. omnia, all things.¹ (1)

4. nihil novi, nothing new.² (1)

5. maestus rediit, he returned sadly. (2)

6. nēmō in scaenā levior et nēquior, no one on the stage more trifling and worthless (than usual). (3)

7. hūjus domus est vel optima, his home is the very best. (3)

8. in hāc insulā extremā est fōns, at the farthest part of this island is a fountain. (4)

9. qui mihi primus fidem porrēxit, who was the first to extend help to me. (5)

10. quis vestrum, who of you? (6)

11. dux memor vestri, a leader mindful of you. (6)

12. fortūna omnium nostrum, the fortunes of its all. (6)

13. puerōs misit qui haec uxōri suae³ nūntiārent, he sent slaves to announce these things to his wife. (7)

14. contrōversiās inter sē habuērunt, they had disputes with one another. (8)

15. nōn est ista⁴ mea culpa, that is not my fault. (9)

16. haec fuerunt maxima in illō, in hōc nūlla, these (defects) were very great in the former, non-existent in the latter. (9)

Notes on the Examples.

¹In other cases than the nominative and accusative this idea is best expressed by means of res, e.g. omnium rerum, of all things; omnibus rebus, by all things. Omnium, omnibus, parvōrum, parvis, and similar forms would be ambiguous in gender.

²Lit. nothing of new, - Genitive of the Whole.

³Suae illustrates the use of the indirect reflexive.

⁴Ista is here attracted from istud to the gender of the predicate noun; such attraction of the pronoun is the rule in Latin.

Remarks.

1. Sui is regularly employed like mei and tui as an Objective Genitive. To indicate the whole of which a part is taken, the Latin may use either ex sē, ex suis, or suōrum, e.g. multōs ex sē or multōs suōrum miserunt, they sent many of their own number.

2. Observe that in such expressions as inter sē amant, they love each other, no direct object is expressed.

46 PRONOUNS (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Is.

2. Idem.

3. Ipse.

4. Quis, Aliquis.

5. Quisquam.

6. Quisque.

7. Alius, Alter.

8. Uterque.

EXAMPLES.

1. si nōs, id quod debet, nostra patria delectat, if our country pleases us, a thing which it ought.

2. flēbat pater dē fili morte, dē patris filius, the father was weeping over the impending death of his son; the son over (that) of the father.(1)

3. exempla quaerimus et ea nōn antiqua, we are seeking precedents, and those not ancient. (1)

4. dicēbant idem quod¹ ego, they were saying the same thing as I. (2)

5. ā multis ipsa virtūs contemnitur, by many even Virtue is scorned. (3)

6. ipsae dēfluēbant corōnae, the garlands fell down of their own accord.(3)

7. Vēritās sē ipsa dēfendit, Truth defends itself. (3)

8. si qui exire volunt, possum cōnivēre, if any wish to go forth, I can shut my eyes to it. (4)

9. aliquis dicet, some one will say. (4)

10. nōn eguit cōnsiliō cūjusquam, he didnot need the advice of any one. (5)

11. neque quicquam.est optātius, nor is anything more desirable. (5)

12. pecūnia semper ā clārissimō quōque contempta est, money has ever been despised by all the most distinguished men, lit. by each most distinguished man. (6)

13. tertiō quōque verbō, at every other word.(6)

14. tribūnum alii gladiis adoriuntur, alii fūstibus, some attack the tribune with swords, others with clubs. (7)

15. alter absolūtus est, alter sē ipse condemnāvit, the one was acquitted, the other condemned himself. (7)

16. alius in aliā rē est magis ūtilis, one person is more.useful in one thing, another in another. (7)

17. quōs ego utrōsque in eōdem genere praedātōrum pōnō, both of whom (i.e. both groups) I place in the same class of plunderers. (8)

18. uterque hōrum, both of these. (8)

Note on the Examples.

¹The English 'same as' is regularly expressed in Latin by idem qui, less frequently by idem ac (atque).

Remark.

1. Aliquis, as well as quisquam, is used in negative sentences, though much less frequently, and with its regular force of some one. Thus nōn eget cōnsiliō alicūjus means: he does not need the advice of some one, i.e. some individual. This sentence is the negation of eget cōnsiliō alicūjus, he needs the advice o. some individual. Nōn eget cōnsiliō cūjusquam, on the other hand, constitutes a more general denial, - he does not need the advice of anybody (at all).

47 TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE. - SUBJUNCTIVE IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. The Present.

2. The Imperfect.

3. The Future.

4. The Perfect.

5. The Pluperfect.

6. The Future Perfect.

7. Hortatory Subjunctive.

8. Jussive Subjunctive.

9. Prohibitions.

10. Deliberative Subjunctive.

EXAMPLES.

1. tē jam dūdum hortor, I have long been urging you. (1)

2. aliis mortem parentum pollicēbātur, to others he used to promise the death of parents. (2)

3. ibis quō tē jam pridem ista tua cupiditās rapiēbat, you will go whither your desire had long been hurrying you. (2)

4. num dubitās id facere quod jam facfābās, do you hesitate to do that which you were already doing? (2)

5. multās G. Caesaris virtūtās cognōvi, I am acquainted with many virtues of Gaius Caesar. (4)

6. quem ad modum cōnsuēvērunt, as they are accustomed (4)

7. omnia nōrat, he knew all things. (5)

8. amēmus patriam, pāreāmus senātui, let us love our country, let us obey the Senate. (7)

9. nē difficilia optemus, let us not wish for what is difficult.(7)

10. dēsinant furere ac prōscriptiōnēs et dictātūrās cōgitāre, let them cease to rage and think of proscriptions and dictatorships. (8)

11. nē attingant rem pūblicam, let them not touch the state ! (9)

12. nōli haec putāre, do not think this ! (9)

13. quid faciās, what are you to do ? (10)

14. quid facerēs, what were you to do? (10)

15. cūr C. Gornēlium nōn dēfenderem, why was I not to defend Gaius Cornelius? (10)

48 INDEPENDENT SUBJUNCTIVE (continued). - PURPOSE CLAUSES.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. The Optative Subjunctive.

2. The Potential Subjunctive.

3. The Imperative.

4. Purpose Clauses with ut, ne, quō.

5. Relative Clauses of Purpose.

6. Relative Clauses with dignus, indignus, idoneus.

7. Sequence of Tenses.

EXAMPLES.

1. quod di ōmen āvertant, may the gods avert this omen! (1)

2. utinam rēs pūblica stetisset, would that the republic had stood ! (1)

3. utinam Quiritēs, virōrum fortium cōpiam tantam habērētis, would, O Romans, that you had so great an abundance of brave men! (1)

4. dixerit aliquis, some one may say. (2)

5. vix vērisimile videātur, it would hardly seem likely. (2)

6. hōc sine ūllā dubitātiōne cōnfirmāverim, this I should affirm without any hesitation. (2)

7. in exsilium proficiscere, go forth into extle. (3)

8. rem vōbis prōpōnam: vōs eam penditōte, I will lay the matter before you: do you consider it. (3)

9. cōnsulēs summum jūs habentō, let the consuls have supreme power. (3)

10. Lentulus in ea loca missus est, ut privātōs agrōs coëmeret, Lentulus was sent to those places to purchase private lands. (4)

11. pecūniam dedit nē condemnārētur, he gave money that he might not be condemned. (4)

12. ūnum annum ēligam quō fācilius explicāre possim, I will select one year that I may be able to explain more easily. (4)

13. illum dēlēgistis quem bellō praepōnerētis, you chose him to put in charge of the war. (5)

14. digni sunt qui civitāte dōnentur, they are worthy to be presented with citizenship. (6)

Remarks.

1. Note that the Latin uses nē quis, in order that no one; nē quid, in order that nothing; nē ūllus, nē qui, in order that no.

2. Observe the occasional use of purpose clauses, as in English, to denote the purpose with which a statement is made, as, nē timeās, incolumis est, that you may have no fears, (I will say) he is safe.

49 CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC - CLAUSES OF RESULT.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Simple Clauses of Characteristic.

2. Clauses of Characteristic denoting Cause (since) or Opposition (though).

3. Clauses of Characteristic introduced by quin.

4. Idiomatic Expressions.

5. Clauses of Result introduced by ut and ut nōn; Sequence of Tenses in Result Clauses

6. Relative Clauses of Result.

7. Result Clauses introduced by quin.

EXAMPLES.

1. multi inventi sunt, qui summum malum dolōrem dicerent, many have been found who declared pain the greatest ill. (1)

2. sapientia est ūna quae maestitiam pellat, philosophy is the only thing that dispels sorrow. (1)

3. quid est enim quod tē dēlectāre possit, for what is there that can delight you? (1)

4. ō magna vis veritātis quae sē ipsa dēfendat, oh the mighty power of truth, since it defends itself! (2)

5. nēmō est quin intellegat, there is no one who does not know. (3)

6. Epicūrus sē ūnus, quod sciam, sapientem professus est, Epicurus alone, so far as I know, set up for a philosopher. (4)

7. sie enim tēcum loquar ut nōn odiō permōtus esse videar, for I will so speak with you as not to seem to be moved by hatred. (5)

8. nēmō tam improbus erit qui id nōn jūre factum esse fateātur, there will be no one so wicked as not to admit it was done justly. (6)

9. nēmō erit tam injūstus quin de meis praemiis putet, no one will be so unjust as not to think of my rewards. (7)

50 CAUSAL CLAUSES. - TEMPORAL CLAUSES.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Causal Clauses.

2. Temporal Clauses introduced by postquam, ut, etc., denoting a single act.

3. Clauses introduced by ut, ubi, simul ac, denoting a repeated act.

4. Pluperfect Indicative with postquam.

EXAMPLES.

1. Gallia laudētur, quod sē nōn trādidit,¹ let Gaul be praised because it did not surrender. (1)

2. laudātur prōvincia quod resistat² Antōniō, the province is praised because it resists Antony. (1)

3. quae cum ita sint, since these things are so. (1)

4. mē accūsās nōn quod tuis ratiōnibus nōn assentiar, sed quod nūllis, you accuse me, not because I do not agree with your arguments, but because (I agree) with none. (1)

5. postquam ea diēs venit, incipit simulāre, after that day came, he began to pretend. (2)

6. ut Rōmam rediit, praetor factus est, when he retumed to Rome, he was made praetor. (2)

7. quod ubi Verrēs audivit, cupiditāte inflammātus est, when Verres heard that, he was kindled with desire. (2)

8. simul ac tē aspexi, hōc sēnsi, as soon as I set eyes on you, I observed this. (2)

9. post diem tertium gesta rēs est, quam hōc dixerat,³ the deed was done three days after he had said this. (4)

Notes on the Examples.

¹The speaker's own reason, - hence the indicative.

²Not the reason of the writer, but of those who bestow the praise, - hence the subjunctive

³Note the pluperfect indicative after a phrase denoting a definite interval of time (post diem tertium).

51 TEMPORAL CLAUSES (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Cum-Clauses.

2. Antequam and Priusquam.

3. Dum, donec, quoad.

EXAMPLES.

1. an tum erās cōnsul, cum in Palātiō mea domus ārdebat, or were you then consul, when my house burned up an the Palatine? (1)

2. quō cum Catilina venisset, quis senātor salūtāvit eum, when Catiline had come there, what senator saluted him? (1)

3. neque, cum aliquid mandārat, cōnfectum putābat, nor when he had allotted any task, did he think it finished. (1)

4. cum mē violāre volent, sē ipsi indicābunt, when they desire to harm me, they will bear testimony against themselves (1)

5. antequam ad causam redeō, dē mē pauca dicam, before I come back to the case, I will say a few things concerning my self. (2)

6. quod ego, prius quam loqui coepisti, sēnsi, which I perceive before you began to speak. (2)

7. antequam veniat, litterās mittet, before he comes, he will send a letter, i.e. he will send a letter in anticipation of his coming.(2)

8. antequam verbum facerem abiit, he left before I uttered a word. (2)

9. dum haec geruntur, Quinctius ex agrō dētrūditur, while these things were being done, Quinctius was driven from hit land. (3)

10. ille erat timendus, dum urbis moenibus continēbātur, he was a man to be feared only as long as he was confined within the walls of the city. (3)

11. num exspectātis dum Metellus de istius scelere testimōnium dicat, are you waiting for Metletellus to give his testimony concerning that villain's rascality? (2)

52 SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Substantive Clauses developed from the Jussive.

2. Substantive Clauses developed from the Deliberative.

3. Substantive Clauses after verbs of hindering, preventing,.etc.

4. Substantive.Clauses developed from the Optative.

5. Substantive Clauses of Result.

EXAMPLES.

1. vōs ōrō nē id faciātis, I beg you not to do that. (1)

2. populus Rōmānus permittit ut civitāte dōnentur, the Roman people allows them to be presented with citizenship. (1)

3. senātus dēcernit ut frūmentum emātur, the Senate decrees that grain be purchased. (1)

4. labōrābam nē testēs dicerent, I strove that the witnesses should not speak. (1)

5. hōc dicās licet, you may say this. (1)

6. multa oportet dicāt, he ought to say many things. (1)

7. cōnfiteāre necesse est, it is necessary that you confess. (1)

8. nōn fuit causa cūr postulārēs, there was no reason why you should ask. (2)

9. dubitābit quisquam quin ab Siculis pecūniam cēperint, will any one doubt that they took money from the Sicilians? (2)

10. plūra nē dicam tuae lacrimae mē impediunt, your tears prevent me from saying more.(3)

11. formidō impedit quō minus causam dicere velint, fear prevents them from being willing to plead the case. (3)

12. optō ut hōc audiātis, I desire that you hear this (4)

13. velim² scrlbās,¹ I wish you would write. (4)

14. vellem³ adesset,¹ I wish he were present. (4)

15. vellem³ di immortālēs fēcissent,¹ I wish the immortal gods had brought it to pass. (4)

16. vereor nē quis audeat dicere, I fear that some one will venture to say. (4)

17. verentur ut habeam satis praesidi, they fear that I have not enough protection. (4)

18. persaepe accidit ut miremur, it happens very often that we marvel. (5)

Notes on the Examples.

¹Note the absence of ut, as regularly after visne, velim, vellem.

²Velim is potential subjunctive; the present implies that the wish contained in the object clause is one capable of realization.

³Vellem is likewise a potential subjunctive; the imperfect implies regret at the unreality of the object clause.

Remarks.

1. Licet and oportet take either the infinitive, or the subjunctive without ut, but the intinitive is the commoner construction, especially with licet; necesse est admits either construction.

2. Cōnstituō, when denoting another act of the same subject, more commonly takes an infinitive than an ut-clause.

3. Prohibeō is much more commonly construed with an infinitive than with a Substantive Clause introduced by nē, quō minus, or quin, e.g. si quis tē introire prohibuerit, if any one should prevent your entering. In Cicero and Caesar prohibeō never occurs followed by a quin-clause, though it may take quō minus.

4. Impediō quin does not occur in Cicero's speeches or philosophical works, though impediō quō minus is frequent.

5. In general, after negative expressions of hindering, qui minus is often used in preference to quin.

53 QUOD CLAUSES. - INDIRECT QUESTIONS.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

QUOD CLAUSES.

1. Substantive Clauses introduced by quod.

INDIRECT QUESTIONS.

2. Simple Questions.

3. Double Questions.

4. Haud sciō an, nescio an.

EXAMPLES.

1. quid quod tū ipse in cūstōdiam dedisti, what of the fact that you gave yourself into custody? (1)

2. cūr molestē ferāmus quod accessit exercitus, why should we resent the fact that an army has approached? (1)

3. quā celeritāte haec gesta sint, vidētis, you see with what rapidity these things have been achieved. (2)

4. quaerunt ā mē ubi sit pecūnia, they inquire of me where the money is. (2)

5. exquire num quid scripserit, ask whether he has written anything. (2)

6. nesciō cūr hoc putes, I do not know why you think this. (2)

7. rogāvi pervēnissentne Agrigentum, I asked whether they had come to Agrigentum. (2)

8. quaerō ā tē nōnne putes, I ask of you whether you do not think.(2)

9. nesciō quō mē vertam, I do not know whither to turn (direct: quō vertam, whither am I to turn?) (2)

10. quaerō utrum vērum an falsum sit,

11. quaerō vērumne an falsum sit, I ask whether it is true or false. (3)

12. quaerō vērum an falsum sit,

13. quaerō vērum falsumne sit,

14. di utrum sint necne quaeritur, it is asked whether there are gods or not. (3)

15. haud sciō an mālim, I am inclined to think I prefer. (4)

Remarks.

1. To denote future time in indirect questions, periphrastic forms are used where ambiguty would otherwise result; as, nōn quaerō quid dictūrus sis, I do not ask what you will say.

2. Nōnne in indirect questions is used only after quaerō; see the 8-th example above.

3. In indirect double questions necne is commonly used to ex press or not, annōn is much less frequent.

54 CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. First Type. Nothing Implied.

2. Second Type. Should • • • would Type.

3. Third Type. Contrary to Fact.

EXAMPLES.

1. si hōc dicis, errās, if you say this, you are mistaken. (1)

2. si hōc dicēbās, errābās, if you were saying this, you were mistaken. (1)

3. si hōc dicēs, errābis, if you say (i.e. shall say) this, you will be mistaken. (1)

4. si hōc dixisti, errāvisti, if you said this, you were mistaken. (1)

5. memoria minuitur, nisi eam exerceās, memory grows weak unless you exercise it. (1)

6. si quicquam caelāti aspexerat, manūs abstinere nōn poterat, if ever he had seen any embossed silverware, he could not keep his hands off of it. (1)

7. in exsilium, si hanc vōcem exspectās, proficiscere, go forth into exile, if you ai·e waiting for this command! (1)

8. si hōc dicās, errēs, } If you should say this, you would be mistaken. (2)

9. si hōc dixeris, errāveris,

10. si hōc dicerēs, errārēs, if you were saying this, you would be mistaken. (3)

11. si hōc dixissēs, errāvissēs, if you had said this, you would have been mistaken. (3)

12. nisi eum cursum vitae tenuissem, cōnsul esse potui, I might have been consul, unless I had pursued that course of life. (3)

13. eum patris loco colere dēbēbās, si ūlla in tē pietās esset, you ought to revere him as a father, if you had in you any sense of devotion. (3)

14. si occisus esset, fuistisne ad arma itūri, if he had been slain, would you have proceeded to arms? (3)

55 USE OF nisi, si non, sin. - CONDITIONAL CLAUSES OF COMPARISON. - SUBORDINATE ADVERSATIVE. CLAUSES INTRODUCED BY quamvis, quamquam, etc. - PROVISOS.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Nisi, si non, sin.

2. Conditional Clauses of Comparison.

3. Subordinate Adversative Clauses.

4. Provisos.

EXAMPLES.

1. hōc enim nōn facerem, nisi necesse esset, for I should not be doing this unless it were necessary. (1)

2. etiam si vir bonus nōn esset, even if he were NOT a good man.(1)

3. dolōrem si nōn potuerō frangere, tamen occultābō, if I cannot subdue my grief, yet I will hide it. (1)

4. si futūrum est, fiet; si nōn fotūrum est, nōn fiet, if it is destined to be, it will be; if it is not destined, it will not be. (l)

5. hunc mihi timōrem ēripe; si est verus, nē opprimar; sin falfms, ut timēre dēsinam, take away this terror from me; if it is real, in order that I may not be crushed; but if unfounded, in order that I may cease to fear. (l)

6. ēdūc tēcum omnis tuōs; si minus quam plūrimōs, lead out with you all your followers; if not (all), as many as possible. (l)

7. nomen petis quasi incertum sit, you ask for the name as if it were uncertain. (2)

8. hoc locō sedēbat, quasi reus ipse esset, he sat in this place as if he were himself under accusation. (2)

9. ita loquor quasi ego illud fēcerim, I speak as though I had done that. (2)

10. quamvis mihi rēs nōn placeat, tamen pugnāre non poterō, though the matter should not please me, I shall not be able to contend. (3)

11. quamvis amplum sit, parum est, however extensive it be, it is too little. (3)

12. quamquam premuntur aere aliēno, dominātionem tamen exspectant, though they are overwhelmed with debt, yet they expect power. (3)

13. etsi omnēs probābant, though all approved. (3)

14. Sōcratēs cum facile posset ēdūci ē cūstōdiā, noluit, though Socrates might have been led out of jail, yet he refused. (3)

15. magnō mē metū liberābis, dum modo inter mē atque tē mūrus intersit, you will relieve me of a great fear, provided only a wall intervenes between me and you. (3)

Remark.

1. Etsi, although, is carefully to be distinguished from etsi, even if; the latter is a conditional particle and takes any of the constructions admissible for si; see Lesson XXIV.

56 INDIRECT DISCOURSE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

Moods.

1. Declarative Sentences.

2. Interrogative.Sentences.

3. Imperative Sentences.

TENSES.

1. Of the Infinitive.

2. Of the Subjunctive.

EXAMPLES.

1. credō vōs mirāri quid hōc sit, I suppose you wonder what this is. (1)

2. negō quemquam vestrum esse quin hōc saepe audierit, I deny that there is any one of you who has not often heard this. (1)

3. tū, ā quō sciam esse praemissōs qui tibi praestōlārentur, you, by whom I know men have been sent on ahead to wait for you. (1)

4. intellegō nēminem tam stultum fore qui nōn videat conjūrātiōnem esse factam, I appreciate that no one will be so foolish as not to see that a conspiracy has been made. (1)

5. nostrā, qui remānsissēmus, caede tē contentum esse, dicēbās, you said you were content with the massacre of us who had remained. (1)

6. hanc contrōversiam fuisse dixērunt, quod Lentulō Sāturnālibus caedem fieri placēret, they said that there had been this dispute, that Lentulus wished to have the massacre take place on the Saturnalia. (1)

7. dixērunt sē factūrōs quod imperātum esset, they said they would do what had been commanded. (1)

8. crēdidit eum qui ōrātiōnem bonōrum imitārētur, facta quoque imitātūrum, he supposed that a man who imitated the language of the good would also imitate their acts. (1)

9. sciō te hāec ēgisse, I know you were doing this. (Direct: agēbās) I know you did this. (Direct : ēgisti.) I know you had done this. (Direct : ēgerās.) (1)

10. videor ostendisse quālēs dei essent, I seem to have shown of what nature the gods are. (Direct: ostendi) (1)

Remarks.

1. Note that a dependent perfect infinitive is treated as an historical tense whenever, if resolved into an equivalent indicative, it would be historical. See the last example above.

2. Note that for the sake of vividness a present tense of the direct discourse is not infrequently retained in the indirect after an historical tense. This is called repraesentātiō, 'a bringing back to the present.'

57 INDIRECT DISCOURSE (continued).

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

Conditional Sentences in Indirect Discourse.

EXAMPLES.

NOTE. The direct form is given first in parenthesis.

(si hōc crēdis, errās, if you believe this, you are wrong.)

1. dicō tē, si hōc crēdās, errāre, I say that, if you believe this, you are wrong.

2. dixi tē, si hōc crēderēs, errāre, I said that, if you believed this, you were wrong.

(si hōc crēdēs, errābis, if you believe (i.e. shall believe) this, you will be wrong.)

3. dicō tē, si hōc crēdās, errātūrum esse, I say that if you believe (i.e. shall believe) this, you will be wrong.

4. dixi tē, si hōc crēderēs, errātūrum esse, I said that if you should believe this, you would be wrong.

(si hōc credideris, errābis, ij yau shall have believed this, yau will be wrong.)

5. dicō tē, si hōc crēdideris, errātūrum esse, I say that if you shall have believed this, you will be wrong.

6. dixi tē, si hōc crēdidissēs, errātūrum esse, I said that, if you should have believed this, you would be wrong.

(si hōc crēdās, erres, if you should believe this, you would be wrong.)

7. dicō tē, si hōc credās, errātūrum esse, I say that if you should believe this, you would be wrong.

8. dixi tē, si hōc crēderēs, errātūrum esse, I said that, if you should believe this, you would be wrong.

(si hōc crēdēres errārēs, if you were believing this, you would be in error)

9. dicō (dixi) te, si hōc crederes, errātūrum esse, I say (said) that, if you were believing this, you would be wrong.

(si hōc crēdidissēs, errāvissēs, if you, had believed this, you would have been wrong.)

10. dicō (dixi) tē, si hōc crēdidissēs, errātūrum fuisse, I say (said) that, if yon had believed this, you would have been wrong.

(si hōc dixisses, pūnitus esses, if you had said this, you would have been punished.)

11. dicō (dixi) si hōc dixisses, futūrum fuisse ut pūnireris, I say (said) that, if you had said this, you would have been punished, lit. it would have happened that you were punished.

12. nōn dubitō quin, si hōc dixissēs, errātūrus fueris, I do not doubt that if you had said this, you would have been wrong.

13. quaero, num, si hoc dixissēs, errātūrus fueris, I ask whether you would have made a mistake, if you had said this.

58 THE INFINITIVE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Infinitive without Subject Accusative, used as Subject.

2. Infinitive without Subject Accusative, used as Object.

3. Infinitive with Subject Accusative, used as Subject.

4. Infinitive with Subject Accusative, used as Object.

5. Passive Construction of Verbs which in the Active are fol lowed by the Infinitive with Subject Accusative.

EXAMPLES.

1. difficile est ōrātiōnis exitum invenire, it is difficult to find an end of my speech. (1)

2. eis frūmentum accipere licet, it is permitted to them to receive grain. (1)

3. Caecinae placuit experiri, it pleased Caecina to make the trial. (1)

4. Rōscium dēfendere nōn audent, they do not dare to defend Roscius. (2)

5. avi mōrēs debebās imitāri, you ought to have imitated the character of your grandfather. (2)

6. nōs omnis vitā privāre cōnāti sunt, they tried to deprive us all of life. (2)

7. ēvādere nōn potuērunt, they could not escape. (2)

8. tibi frūmentum dare parātus sum, I am prepared to give you grain. (2)

9. rēs nemini dubia esse potest, the matter can be doubtful to no one. (2)

10. quō animō me esse oportet, of what feeling ought I to be ? (3)

11. turpe est mē mortem timuisse, it is disgi·aceful for me to have feared death. (3)

12. cōnsul lūdōs fieri vetuit, ihe consitl forbade the games to be held. (4)

13. sinite mē praeterire nostram calamitatem, permit me to pass over our misfortune. (4)

14. nōn molestē ferēbant sē libidinum vinculis laxatōs esse, they did not regret (lit. bear it ill) that they had been freed from the fetters of passion. (4)

15. ire in exsilium jussus est, he was ordered to go into exile. (5)

16. vidēbatur magnam glōriam cōnseciitus,¹ he seemed to have attained great glory. (5)

Note on tbe Examples.

¹Observe that the participle in the compound tenses of the infinitive agrees with the subject of the main verb in constructions of this type. The auxiliary esse is also freely omitted.

59 PARTICIPLES.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. Tenses of the Participle.

2. Use of Participles.

EXAMPLES.

1. audiō tē loquentem, I hear you as you speak. (1)

2. audivi tē loquentem, I heard you as you were speaking. (1)

3. audiam tē loquentem, I shall hear you as you speak, i.e. as you shall be speaking. (1)

4. locūtus tacet, he has spoken and is silent, lit. having spoken, he is silent. (1)

5. locūtus tacuit, he had spoken and was silent. (1)

6. locūtus tacēbit, he will speak and then be silent. (1)

7. Catōnem vidi in bibliothēcā sedentem, I saw Cato sitting in his library. (2)

8. hōc mihi primum post haue urbem conditam togātō contigit, I am the first man in civil life to whom this has happened since he foundation of the city. (2)

9. huic generi hominum parcendum est, this class of men must be spared. (2)

10. lēgem scribendam cūrāvit, he saw to the engrossing of the law. (2)

11. eum jugulandum vōbis tradidērunt, they handed him over to you to be put to death. (2)

Remarks.

1. Note that the perfect passive participle is often equivalent to a coōrdinate clause in English, as, C. Servilius Ahāla Sp. Maelium occupātum interēmit, Gaius Servilius Ahala surprised and slew Spurius Maelius, lit. slew him having been surprised.

2. Observe that the present active participle is used much less freely in Latin than in English. We employ it somewhat loosely to denote an act prior to that of the verb with which it is connected; as, 'Finding no means of escape, he surrendered.' Here the finding is anterior to the surrender. In such cases the Latin would employ some other form of expression; in that language the present participle is strictly limited to the expression of acts contemporary with the action of the main verb.

60 THE GERUND; THE GERUNDIVE CONSTRUCTION; THE SUPINE.

GRAMMATICAL REFERENCES.

1. The Gerund

2. The Gerundive Construction.

3. The Supine.

EXAMPLES.

1. cupidus te audiendi, desirous of hearing you. (1)

2. glōriandi causā, for the sake of boasting. (1)

3. rem quaeris praeclāram ad discendum, you seek an excellent subject for learning. (1)

4. hominibus salūtem dandō, by giving safety to men. (1)

5. cōnsilium urbis delendae et civium trucidandōrum, the plan of destroying the city and massacring the citizens. (2)

6. Brūtus in liberandā patriā interfectus est, Brutus was slain in freeing his country. (2)

7. cui ad sollicitandōs pāstōres Āpūlia attribūta est, to whom Apulia has been assigned for the purpose of tampering with the shepherds. (2)

8. ad agrum fruendum¹ nōs allectat senectūs, old age invites us to enjoy the farm. (2)

9. sui cōnservandi² causā, for the sake of saving themselves. (2)

10. exclūsi eōs quōs tū ad me salūtātum miserās, I kept out those whom you had sent to greet me. (3)

11. si hōc optimum fāctū jūdicārem, if I thought this best to do. (3)

Notes on the Examples.

¹Note that fruor, like the other deponents governing the ablative, admits the gerundive construction.

²Cōnservandi agrees merely in form with sui and vestri; in sense it is plural.

Remark.

1. The dative of the gerund and of the gerundive are both rare in Ciceronian Latin; consequently the construction, though com­mon later, is hardly to be imitated by the beginner in Latin writing.